Chapter 16: Reclaiming the Fragments

This chapter is part of the book The Sacred Editors: Christianity.

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"I am the honored one and the scorned one. I am the whore and the holy one." —The Thunder, Perfect Mind

Nag Hammadi, Upper Egypt, December 1945. The winter sun hangs low over the Jabal al-Tarif cliffs as Muhammad al-Samman drives his camel toward the talus slopes where generations of farmers have dug for sabakh—the nitrogen-rich decomposed organic matter that makes the desert bloom. His brothers Ahmed and Khalifah work nearby, their metal hoes ringing against limestone and shale as they search for the dark, crumbling earth that will fertilize their sugar cane fields.

Muhammad's shovel strikes something solid. Not rock—something hollow, ceramic. He calls to his brothers, and together they unearth a large red earthenware jar, nearly three feet tall, sealed with a bowl and secured with bitumen. Local tradition warns that such jars might contain djinn—malevolent spirits that could curse anyone foolish enough to disturb their rest. But Muhammad also knows that ancient jars sometimes contain gold.¹

The choice between supernatural caution and material opportunity takes only a moment. Muhammad raises his mattock and brings it down hard, shattering the jar's rim. No djinn emerge, no golden treasure glitters in the afternoon light. Instead, the jar contains thirteen leather-bound books, their papyrus pages covered with Coptic script that none of the brothers can read. The books seem worthless—old, musty, probably religious texts that some ancient monk had hidden and forgotten.

Muhammad wraps the codices in his white cotton tunic and carries them home to his mother, who uses several pages to kindle their cooking fire before her son stops her. Over the following months, the books will pass through the hands of antiquities dealers in Cairo, Belgian collectors, Swiss manuscript traders, and finally international scholars who will recognize what Muhammad had discovered: a complete ancient Christian library containing texts that had vanished from the historical record for over fifteen hundred years.²

**Twenty miles away, across the Nile in the Judean wilderness, another discovery is simultaneously reshaping biblical scholarship. Bedouin shepherds searching for a lost goat in the caves near Qumran have stumbled upon ceramic jars containing Hebrew and Aramaic scrolls—some nearly two thousand years old, representing the oldest biblical manuscripts ever found. Among them are not only familiar texts like Isaiah and Psalms, but also alternative versions of biblical books, previously unknown sectarian writings, and apocalyptic visions that blur the boundaries between Scripture and speculation.**³

Together, these twin discoveries—the Nag Hammadi Library and the Dead Sea Scrolls—will fundamentally alter twentieth-century understanding of Jewish and Christian origins by revealing textual diversity and theological creativity that official religious traditions had either forgotten or deliberately suppressed. Muhammad al-Samman had no idea that his winter afternoon digging for fertilizer would challenge two millennia of assumptions about biblical authority, canonical boundaries, and early Christian orthodoxy.

The past, it turned out, had not gone quietly into history's shadows. It was waiting in buried jars for someone curious enough to break them open.

Historical and Textual Context

By the mid-twentieth century, the canon of Christian Scripture had long been considered fixed and final. Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox traditions might disagree about which books belonged in the biblical collection, but each maintained confidence that their particular canonical boundaries represented authentic preservation of divine revelation. Biblical criticism had raised questions about authorship, dating, and textual transmission, but the fundamental structure of Christian scriptural authority seemed stable.

The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1947-1956) and the Nag Hammadi Library (1945) shattered any comfortable illusion that ancient Judaism and Christianity had operated within singular, stable textual traditions. These archaeological finds revealed manuscript evidence for far greater religious diversity and theological creativity in ancient Mediterranean religious communities than traditional histories had preserved.

The Dead Sea Scrolls Revolution

The Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered in eleven caves near the ruins of Qumran between 1947 and 1956, include over 900 manuscripts dating from approximately 300 BCE to 70 CE. These texts provide unprecedented insight into Second Temple Judaism—the religious context within which both Jesus and Paul developed their theological perspectives.⁴

Most dramatically, the scrolls include the oldest known manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible, predating previously known biblical texts by nearly a thousand years. The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa^a^) contains the complete text of Isaiah and demonstrates remarkable fidelity to later manuscript traditions, supporting claims about careful textual transmissionacross centuries of copying.

However, the scrolls also reveal significant textual diversity that challenges assumptions about biblical uniformity. Multiple versions of Psalms, Jeremiah, Samuel, and other biblical books demonstrate that canonical boundaries and textual forms remained fluid well into the first century CE. Eugene Ulrich documents how these variant biblical textsrepresent "legitimate alternative literary editions" rather than scribal errors, indicating that biblical authority could accommodate textual plurality in ways that later standardization obscured.⁵

Beyond biblical manuscripts, the scrolls contain sectarian writings that illuminate Jewish religious diversity during the Second Temple period. The Community Rule (1QS), the War Scroll (1QM), and the Temple Scroll (11QT) reveal sophisticated apocalyptic theology, detailed ritual legislation, and alternative approaches to biblical interpretationthat were developing alongside Pharisaic, Sadducean, and other Jewish traditions.

The Damascus Document describes a "New Covenant" community that withdrew from Jerusalem Temple worship to establish alternative religious practices in desert locations. This text's emphasis on spiritual purification, communal property, and preparation for divine judgment provides crucial context for understanding John the Baptist's ministry and early Christian apocalypticism.⁶

The Nag Hammadi Christian Library

The Nag Hammadi Library consists of thirteen papyrus codices containing fifty-two texts written primarily in Coptic(Egyptian) but translated from Greek originals composed between the second and fourth centuries CE. These writings preserve alternative Christian traditions that were marginalized or suppressed during the process of orthodox consolidation but continued to circulate in monastic communities and intellectual circles throughout the late antique period.⁷

The Gospel of Thomas, the most famous Nag Hammadi text, presents Jesus's teachings through 114 sayings that emphasize inner spiritual knowledge rather than salvation through crucifixion and resurrection. Saying 3 declares: "If your leaders say to you, 'Look, the (Father's) kingdom is in the sky,' then the birds of the sky will precede you. If they say to you, 'It is in the sea,' then the fish will precede you. Rather, the kingdom is within you and it is outside you."⁸

This emphasis on immediate spiritual access contrasts sharply with canonical Gospels' focus on Jesus's unique mediating role and suggests that early Christian communities developed diverse approaches to spiritual authority and religious practice. April DeConick argues that Thomas preserves authentic early Christian emphasis on mystical experience that was later subordinated to institutional authority as Christianity developed more hierarchical structures.⁹

The Gospel of Mary portrays Mary Magdalene as receiving post-resurrection revelations that the male disciples cannot understand or accept. When Peter objects to Mary's teaching, Levi responds: "Peter, you have always been hot-tempered... If the Savior made her worthy, who are you indeed to reject her? Surely the Savior knows her very well. That is why he loved her more than us."¹⁰ This narrative provides evidence for early Christian communities where women's spiritual authority was both recognized and contested.

The Thunder, Perfect Mind presents a powerful first-person monologue from a feminine divine voice who declares: "I am the honored one and the scorned one. I am the whore and the holy one. I am the wife and the virgin... I am knowledge and ignorance... I am the utterance of my name."¹¹ This sophisticated theological poetry suggests that early Christian communities developed feminine divine imagery that later orthodox tradition either ignored or explicitly rejected.

The Apocryphon of John provides an elaborate cosmological myth describing how the material world emerged through the activities of spiritual beings both divine and demonic. This text presents Sophia (Wisdom) as a feminine divine figure whose creative activity results in both spiritual illumination and cosmic fallenness, offering an alternative to Genesis creation accounts that emphasizes spiritual knowledge over moral obedience.¹²

Rediscovered Texts Overview

The Suppression and Recovery Process

Understanding how these texts disappeared from mainstream Christian tradition requires attention to both theological arguments and practical mechanisms that institutional authorities employed to establish orthodox consensus while marginalizing alternative voices.

Theological Consolidation during the fourth and fifth centuries led to increasingly precise credal formulations that required biblical interpretations supporting Trinitarian doctrine, Incarnational Christology, and episcopal authority. Texts emphasizing direct spiritual experience, diverse approaches to Jesus's significance, or alternative cosmological frameworks were classified as "heretical" regardless of their historical antiquity or spiritual sophistication.

Athanasius of Alexandria's famous Festal Letter 39 (367 CE) not only established the twenty-seven book New Testament canon but explicitly condemned apocryphal writings as "the inventions of heretics" that should be **"utterly rejected and anathematized."**¹³ This episcopal decree provided official authorization for suppressing alternative texts that had previously circulated alongside canonical writings in many Christian communities.

Institutional mechanisms for textual suppression operated through both active persecution and passive neglect. Imperial legislation under Theodosius I and his successors authorized confiscation and destruction of heretical books, while monastic communities increasingly focused their copying efforts on canonical texts and orthodox theological works rather than preserving textual diversity.¹⁴

Physical factors also contributed to textual loss, as papyrus manuscripts required constant recopying to survive Egyptian climate conditions. Texts that lacked institutional support or popular demand were more likely to deteriorate without replacement, creating a selection bias that favored orthodox writings over alternative traditions.

Yet some communities continued to preserve suppressed texts through clandestine copying and careful storage in desert monasteries and private libraries. The Nag Hammadi codices appear to have been deliberately buried around 400 CE by monks from the nearby Pachomian monastery who sought to preserve theological diversity despite official pressure for orthodox conformity.¹⁵

What Would Have Changed?

The systematic suppression of these alternative Christian traditions represents one of the most consequential editorial decisions in religious history, with implications that extend far beyond academic historical scholarship to fundamental questions about theological method, spiritual authority, and religious imagination that continue to affect contemporary Christianity.

Contemplative and Mystical Christianity as Mainstream Tradition

If texts like the Gospel of Thomas and Thunder, Perfect Mind had remained canonical, Christianity might have developed with far greater emphasis on direct spiritual experience and contemplative practice rather than primarily emphasizing institutional mediation and creedal conformity. Elaine Pagels argues that these texts preserve early Christian traditions that valued "inner knowing" and personal revelation as legitimate spiritual authorities alongside apostolic teaching and episcopal guidance.¹⁶

This alternative development could have produced Christian communities that emphasized mystical contemplation, spiritual discernment, and personal religious experience as normative practices rather than specialized activitieslimited to monastic communities or exceptional individuals. Contemporary contemplative movements within Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox traditions might have been unnecessary if mainstream Christianity had preserved canonical warrant for direct spiritual encounter.

The theological implications could have been transformative. Bernard McGinn suggests that mystical traditionsemphasizing immediate spiritual access might have prevented some of the institutional rigidity that characterized medieval Christianity while supporting more flexible approaches to doctrinal interpretation and religious authority.¹⁷ Feminist theologians like Rosemary Radford Ruether argue that contemplative emphasis on inner spiritual authority could have supported women's religious leadership by validating personal spiritual insight over institutional credentials.¹⁸

Theological Diversity and Alternative Approaches to Salvation

The Gospel of Thomas's emphasis on Jesus as teacher and revealer of wisdom rather than primarily sacrificial saviorcould have supported the development of more diverse soteriological traditions within Christianity. April DeConickargues that Thomas Christianity represents an authentic early Christian trajectory that emphasized spiritual transformation through knowledge and practice rather than salvation through institutional sacraments.¹⁹

If this theological trajectory had remained mainstream, Christian communities might have developed more varied approaches to spiritual formation, moral development, and religious practice that emphasized personal responsibility for spiritual growth alongside divine grace and community support. Contemporary debates about faith and works, religious authority, and spiritual practice might have proceeded along different lines with canonical precedent for multiple legitimate approaches to Christian discipleship.

The practical implications could have affected everything from worship practices (with greater emphasis on contemplative silence and personal reflection) to theological education (with more attention to spiritual formationand mystical theology) to pastoral care (with greater emphasis on spiritual direction and contemplative guidance).

Women's Spiritual Authority and Gender-Inclusive Theology

The canonical inclusion of texts like the Gospel of Mary and Thunder, Perfect Mind could have provided scriptural foundation for women's religious leadership and feminine divine imagery that might have prevented the systematic marginalization of women from Christian institutional authority. Karen King argues that these texts preserve early Christian traditions where women's spiritual insights and teaching authority were recognized and valued by mixed-gender communities.²⁰

This alternative development might have supported Christian traditions where women's ordination, theological scholarship, and spiritual leadership were normative rather than controversial. Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenzasuggests that early Christian egalitarianism might have been preserved rather than abandoned if canonical Scripturehad included explicit precedents for women's apostolic authority and spiritual teaching.²¹

The liturgical implications could have been equally significant, with feminine divine imagery and gender-inclusive language integrated into Christian worship from the earliest periods rather than requiring contemporary recovery and theological justification. Prayer traditions, hymnography, and theological vocabulary might have developed along more gender-balanced lines if canonical texts had preserved feminine divine voices alongside masculine imagery.

Enhanced Ethical Diversity and Practical Christianity

The Didache, though rediscovered earlier than the Nag Hammadi texts, represents another example of early Christian diversity that could have enriched contemporary Christian practice. This church manual contains detailed ethical instruction and liturgical guidance that differs significantly from canonical approaches to Christian moral life and community organization.²²

Aaron Milavec argues that Didache communities developed distinctive approaches to economic ethics, conflict resolution, and community decision-making that could inform contemporary Christian social engagement if these traditions had been canonically preserved.²³ The text's emphasis on practical discipleship and community accountability might have supported Christian traditions that emphasized ethical formation and social responsibilitymore systematically.

This alternative development could have affected Christian approaches to economic justice, community organization, and social engagement by providing canonical warrant for diverse ethical traditions that developed in different early Christian communities rather than requiring contemporary Christians to reconstruct these approaches through historical research and theological imagination.

Scholar Debate: Ancient Alternatives or Later Innovations?

Contemporary scholarship remains vigorously engaged in debates about how to interpret and evaluate these rediscovered texts, with significant implications for understanding both early Christian development and contemporary theological reflection.

Bart D. Ehrman presents a comprehensive argument for viewing alternative Christian texts as representing "proto-orthodox" traditions that were marginalized through political and institutional processes rather than theological inadequacy. In Lost Christianities, Ehrman argues that texts like Thomas and Mary preserve authentic early Christian voices that were "silenced" by communities that eventually gained imperial support and institutional dominance.²⁴

From Ehrman's perspective, canonical formation reflected "the winners writing history" rather than objective evaluation of textual authenticity or theological truth. He emphasizes how accident and political circumstanceshaped which Christian traditions survived and which were forgotten, suggesting that contemporary Christians would benefit from recovering suppressed voices that could enrich modern theological reflection.

Ehrman's research demonstrates how manuscript evidence and archaeological discoveries can challenge traditional assumptions about early Christian uniformity while revealing greater diversity and creativity in ancient religious communities than orthodox histories preserved. He advocates for approaching these rediscovered texts as legitimate windows into early Christian experience rather than dismissed curiosities.

Elaine Pagels offers a feminist interpretation that emphasizes how alternative texts preserve evidence of women's spiritual authority and theological creativity that was systematically suppressed by increasingly hierarchical and male-dominated Christian institutions. In The Gnostic Gospels, Pagels argues that "Gnostic Christianity" offered "spiritual possibilities" for women that orthodox Christianity "denied" through institutional consolidation.²⁵

Pagels demonstrates how texts like Gospel of Mary and Thunder, Perfect Mind provide historical evidence for early Christian communities where women served as teachers, prophets, and spiritual leaders before ecclesiastical development limited religious authority to male clergy. She argues that recovering these traditions can support contemporary efforts to expand women's roles in Christian leadership and theological education.

From Pagels' viewpoint, understanding the suppression process reveals how theological arguments about heresy and orthodoxy often masked political concerns about institutional control and social hierarchy. She contends that contemporary Christianity would be enriched rather than threatened by acknowledging this historical complexity.

Simon Gathercole presents a more critical assessment that questions whether alternative texts represent authentic early traditions or later theological innovations that developed in response to and competition with canonical Christianity. In The Gospel of Thomas: Introduction and Commentary, Gathercole argues that Thomas and similar texts reflect "second-century developments" rather than apostolic origins.²⁶

Gathercole's detailed textual analysis suggests that many "Gnostic" features in alternative gospels represent later theological sophistication rather than primitive Christian simplicity. He emphasizes how these texts often presuppose knowledge of canonical gospels and develop theological themes in directions that suggest chronological posteriorityrather than historical priority.

From Gathercole's perspective, while these texts provide valuable insight into early Christian theological development, they should not be treated as equally authoritative alternatives to canonical tradition but rather as creative responses to apostolic teaching that developed in particular communities under specific circumstances.

James Robinson and other Nag Hammadi scholars offer more moderate assessments that acknowledge both the historical significance and theological limitations of rediscovered texts. Robinson argues that these discoveries demonstrate "early Christian diversity" while cautioning against romanticizing alternatives or minimizing the legitimate concerns that led to their marginalization.²⁷

April DeConick provides detailed textual analysis that supports early dating for core material in Gospel of Thomaswhile acknowledging later editorial development. Her research suggests that these texts preserve authentic early traditions that were developed and interpreted by subsequent communities in ways that both preserved and modifiedoriginal insights.²⁸

Contemporary theological scholars like Marcus Borg and John Dominic Crossan argue that rediscovered texts can enrich contemporary Christian understanding without threatening canonical authority or orthodox theology. They emphasize how alternative traditions can expand rather than replace traditional approaches to Christian faith and practice.²⁹

The Ongoing Publication Controversies

The recovery process for both Dead Sea Scrolls and Nag Hammadi texts has been complicated by scholarly politics, institutional gatekeeping, and commercial interests that have delayed publication and limited access to important historical materials. Understanding these modern controversies illuminates how contemporary academic and religious institutions continue to shape what texts receive attention and how they are interpreted.

Dead Sea Scrolls publication was controlled by a small international team of scholars who maintained exclusive access to unpublished materials for nearly fifty years after their initial discovery. Hershel Shanks and the Biblical Archaeology Review led a public campaign for democratized access that eventually forced institutional changesallowing broader scholarly participation in scrolls research.³⁰

This publication delay reflected both legitimate scholarly concerns about responsible editing and institutional interests in controlling interpretation of potentially controversial materials. The scrolls controversy demonstrates how modern academic politics can affect public understanding of ancient religious diversity.

Nag Hammadi texts faced different challenges, including legal disputes over manuscript ownership, competing translation projects, and debates about appropriate scholarly methods for studying "Gnostic literature." The Jung Codex controversy involved decades of legal proceedings before important texts like Gospel of Thomas and Gospel of Philip became widely available for scholarly study.³¹

These publication controversies reveal how contemporary institutional interests continue to shape public access to historical materials that could inform theological reflection and religious practice. The gradual democratization of these texts through digital publication and popular translations has enabled broader public engagement with early Christian diversity.

Contemporary Impact and Digital Revolution

The digital revolution has dramatically expanded public access to rediscovered Christian texts while creating new opportunities and challenges for contemporary religious communities seeking to understand their historical foundations and theological possibilities.

Online databases like the Digital Egypt for Universities, the Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library, and the Claremont Coptic Encyclopedia now provide free access to high-resolution manuscript images, scholarly translations, and detailed commentary that enables ordinary believers to engage directly with primary sources that were previously accessible only to academic specialists.³²

This technological development has democratized scholarly resources while creating interpretive challenges for religious communities accustomed to mediated textual authority through clergy and institutional guidance. Contemporary Christians can now read Gospel of Thomas or Gospel of Mary alongside canonical gospels, but often lack historical context and theological frameworks for understanding these alternative traditions.

Popular media has both facilitated and complicated public engagement with rediscovered texts through documentaries, novels, and commercial publications that often emphasize sensational interpretations rather than careful historical analysis. Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code and similar popular works have increased public awareness of alternative Christian traditions while promoting interpretations that most scholars consider historically problematic.³³

Contemporary religious communities are developing diverse approaches to incorporating rediscovered texts into theological education, spiritual formation, and worship practices. Progressive Christian communities often embrace these materials as evidence for early Christian diversity that supports contemporary theological innovation, while conservative communities typically emphasize their historical interest without according them canonical authority.

Ecumenical dialogue has been both enriched and complicated by increased awareness of early Christian textual diversity. Interfaith conversations between Christianity and other religious traditions can draw on broader evidencefor contemplative practices and mystical traditions within early Christianity, while intra-Christian discussions must navigate different approaches to textual authority and canonical boundaries.

Academic biblical studies continues to develop more sophisticated methods for analyzing rediscovered texts while engaging broader public interest in early Christian diversity. The Society of Biblical Literature, Westar Institute, and similar organizations sponsor public lectures, online resources, and educational programs that make scholarly research accessible to non-specialist audiences.

Perhaps most significantly, understanding the recovery process for suppressed Christian texts provides perspective on contemporary questions about religious authority, institutional transparency, and theological creativity. The historyof textual suppression and recovery demonstrates both the power of institutional control over religious memory and the persistence of alternative voices that eventually resurface to challenge dominant narratives.

Contemporary believers who approach these rediscovered texts with awareness of their complex history can engagemore thoughtfully with both the insights they offer and the reasons they were marginalized. Rather than treating them as either dangerous heresies or superior alternatives to canonical tradition, mature approaches can appreciate both the wisdom they preserve and the legitimate concerns that led to their exclusion.

The earthenware jar that Muhammad al-Samman broke open in that Egyptian field contained more than ancient manuscripts—it preserved evidence of the remarkable creativity and diversity that characterized early Christian communities before institutional consolidation narrowed theological possibilities. Understanding this history can inspire contemporary Christians to appreciate both the stability of inherited tradition and the ongoing possibility of fresh insight that remains available to communities willing to ask hard questions about their spiritual foundations.

The fragments have been reclaimed, not to replace canonical tradition but to remind contemporary Christian communities that the conversation about divine truth and spiritual practice has never been closed. The desert that preserved these ancient voices continues to yield treasures for those curious enough to dig beneath the familiar surface of inherited assumptions.

Notes

1. The story of Muhammad al-Samman's discovery is documented in James M. Robinson, The Nag Hammadi Story(San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1977), 21-25.
2. For the complex process of manuscript recovery and scholarly access, see John Turner, "The History of the Nag Hammadi Texts from Manuscript Discovery to the International Committee," in The Nag Hammadi Library After Fifty Years, ed. John Turner and Anne McGuire (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 1-34.
3. The Dead Sea Scrolls discoveries are comprehensively documented in Hershel Shanks, The Mystery and Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls (New York: Random House, 1998), 34-67.
4. For comprehensive analysis of the Dead Sea Scrolls, see Lawrence H. Schiffman and James C. VanderKam, eds., Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
5. Eugene Ulrich, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Origins of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 78-120.
6. The Damascus Document's significance is analyzed in Charlotte Hempel, The Damascus Texts (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 45-89.
7. For comprehensive introduction to the Nag Hammadi texts, see Marvin Meyer, ed., The Nag Hammadi Scriptures(New York: HarperOne, 2007), 1-18.
8. Gospel of Thomas Saying 3, in Meyer, Nag Hammadi Scriptures, 139.
9. April D. DeConick, The Original Gospel of Thomas in Translation (London: T&T Clark, 2006), 89-134.
10. Gospel of Mary 18.10-15, in Meyer, Nag Hammadi Scriptures, 741.
11. The Thunder, Perfect Mind 13.16-14.9, in Meyer, Nag Hammadi Scriptures, 367.
12. The Apocryphon of John II 2-4, in Meyer, Nag Hammadi Scriptures, 108-151.
13. Athanasius, Festal Letter 39, in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4, ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1892), 551-552.
14. Imperial legislation against heretical books is documented in Glanville Downey, "The Edict of Theodosius II on Heretical Books," Harvard Theological Review 41 (1948): 91-99.
15. The burial context of the Nag Hammadi codices is analyzed in James Goehring, "The Provenance of the Nag Hammadi Codices Once More," Studia Patristica 35 (2001): 234-253.
16. Elaine Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels (New York: Random House, 1979), 25-47.
17. Bernard McGinn, The Foundations of Mysticism (New York: Crossroad, 1991), 89-112.
18. Rosemary Radford Ruether, Women and Redemption: A Theological History (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1998), 45-67.
19. DeConick, Original Gospel of Thomas, 178-203.
20. Karen L. King, The Gospel of Mary of Magdala: Jesus and the First Woman Apostle (Santa Rosa, CA: Polebridge Press, 2003), 158-195.
21. Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, In Memory of Her: A Feminist Theological Reconstruction of Christian Origins (New York: Crossroad, 1983), 160-204.
22. For comprehensive analysis of the Didache, see Aaron Milavec, The Didache: Faith, Hope, and Life of the Earliest Christian Communities (New York: Newman Press, 2003).
23. Aaron Milavec, The Didache: Text, Translation, Analysis, and Commentary (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2003), 456-478.
24. Bart D. Ehrman, Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 173-194.
25. Pagels, Gnostic Gospels, 48-69.
26. Simon Gathercole, The Gospel of Thomas: Introduction and Commentary (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 112-145.
27. James M. Robinson, "Introduction," in The Nag Hammadi Library in English, 4th ed., ed. James M. Robinson (Leiden: Brill, 1996