Appendix B: Glossary of Key Terms
A Select Lexicon of Hindu Sacred Textual Traditions and Concepts
This glossary provides definitions for Sanskrit terms and concepts central to understanding Hindu sacred texts and their interpretation. Pronunciation guides follow the International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST). Cross-references (→) connect related terms within this glossary.
Āgama [ˈaːɡəmə] -- A class of Sanskrit scriptures foundational to Śaiva, Śākta, and Vaiṣṇava ritual traditions. Distinct from the Veda, yet treated as revealed (→ śruti) by many sects. These texts typically contain ritual procedures, temple construction guidelines, and theological doctrine. Scholarly debate: Some scholars argue Āgamas represent non-Brahmanical traditions later incorporated into Hindu orthodoxy.
Āśrama [ˈaːʃrəmə] -- A stage of life in classical Hindu thought: brahmacārya (student), gṛhastha (householder), vānaprastha (forest-dweller), and saṃnyāsa (renunciant). Also refers to a spiritual hermitage or community where religious study and practice occur. → dharma, varṇa
Ātman [ˈaːt̪mən] -- The individual self or soul, considered eternal and, in Advaita Vedānta, ultimately identical with brahman. Different philosophical schools (→ darśana) offer varying interpretations of its relationship to the universal. → brahman, mokṣa, Upaniṣad
Bhagavad Gītā [ˈbʰəɡəʋəd̪ ɡiːt̪aː] -- "Song of the Divine"; a major Hindu scripture embedded in the Mahābhārata, presented as a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna on duty (→ dharma), devotion (→ bhakti), and liberation (→ mokṣa). Composed ca. 400 BCE–400 CE.
Bhakti [ˈbʰəkt̪ɪ] -- Devotional love for a deity, expressed through poetry, song, ritual, and personal relationship. A major movement across Hindu sects from ca. 600 CE onward, emphasizing accessible spiritual practice over ritual expertise. → sampradāya, rāsa
Brāhmaṇa [ˈbraːhməɳə] -- Vedic prose texts explaining ritual procedures and symbolic meanings associated with the hymns (→ Veda). Composed ca. 1000–600 BCE, they represent the first systematic Hindu hermeneutical literature.
Brahmin [ˈbraːhmɪn] -- A member of the priestly → varṇa traditionally tasked with ritual performance, teaching, and textual preservation. Historical note: Actual social roles have varied significantly across regions and periods. → jāti, dharmaśāstra
Brahman [ˈbrəhmən] -- The ultimate, formless, infinite reality or ground of being in many Hindu philosophical systems. Distinguished from → Brahmin (the social class) by context and pronunciation. Central concept in → Upaniṣad and Vedānta traditions.
Caste (Varṇa/Jāti) [ˈʋərɳə/ˈdʒaːt̪ɪ] -- A hereditary social order with both textual and customary dimensions. Varṇa refers to the four-fold ideal class system (Brahmin, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya, Śūdra) described in → dharmaśāstra texts; jāti refers to actual birth-based communities numbering in thousands. Critical perspective: Contemporary scholars increasingly question colonial-era assumptions about caste "system" uniformity.
Dāsa [ˈd̪aːsə] -- A devotee or servant; often used in → bhakti contexts (e.g., Tulsidās, Haridās) to express humility before the divine. Can also refer historically to non-Āryan peoples in early Vedic texts.
Darśana [ˈd̪ərʃənə] -- A philosophical school or perspective; literally "sight" or "vision." The six classical schools (ṣaḍ-darśana) are Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedānta. Also means divine vision in ritual or pilgrimage contexts.
Dharma [ˈd̪ʰərmə] -- A multivalent term meaning cosmic order, duty, morality, or righteousness. Contextual meanings: In legal texts (→ dharmaśāstra), refers to social obligation; in cosmological contexts, universal law; in individual ethics, righteous conduct. → āśrama, varṇa
Dharmaśāstra [ˈd̪ʰərmə ʃaːst̪rə] -- Genre of Hindu legal and ethical treatises, including works like the Manusmṛti. Composed ca. 200 BCE–200 CE, these texts have been influential in shaping caste and gender norms. → smṛti, śāstra
Epic -- In Hindu context, refers primarily to the two great Sanskrit epics: the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa, which combine mythology, theology, and social instruction. These texts blur boundaries between → śruti and → smṛti authority.
Gṛhya Sūtras [ˈɡr̩hyə suːt̪rə] -- Domestic ritual manuals regulating life-cycle rites (saṃskāras) for householders. Part of the Kalpa literature explaining Vedic ritual application in daily life. → āśrama
Hanuman Cālīsā [hənʊmaːn t͡ʃaːliːsaː] -- A popular 40-verse devotional hymn to Hanuman, composed by Tulsidas (ca. 1532–1623) in Awadhi dialect. Exemplifies → bhakti literature's accessibility and regional adaptation.
Itihāsa [ɪt̪ɪhaːsə] -- "Thus it was"; traditional term for epic literature, particularly the → Mahābhārata and → Rāmāyaṇa. Implies historical truth rather than fictional narrative, though Western scholarship often treats these as mythological.
Jāti [ˈdʒaːt̪ɪ] -- Birth-based community or sub-caste; the lived reality of → caste identity in India. Numbered in thousands, jātis often have specific occupational, regional, or sectarian characteristics. → varṇa
Karma [ˈkərmə] -- The law of moral cause and effect governing rebirth; also refers to action itself. Central concept across Hindu philosophical systems, though interpretations vary regarding destiny versus free will.
Liberation (Mokṣa/Mukti) [ˈmoːkʂə/ˈmʊkt̪ɪ] -- Release from the cycle of rebirth (→ saṃsāra) and worldly bondage; the ultimate goal of many Hindu spiritual paths. Different traditions propose various means: knowledge, devotion, action, or grace.
Mahābhārata [məhaːˈbʰaːrət̪ə] -- "Great [War of] Bhārata"; one of the two great Sanskrit epics, containing the → Bhagavad Gītā and vast philosophical and narrative material. Traditionally attributed to Vyāsa, composed/compiled ca. 400 BCE–400 CE.
Mantra [ˈmənt̪rə] -- A sacred utterance, syllable, word, or verse with spiritual power, used in ritual, meditation, or invocation. Ranges from single syllables (e.g., "Om") to elaborate hymns. Central to both Vedic and Tantric traditions.
Manusmṛti [ˈmənʊ smr̩t̪ɪ] -- "Laws of Manu"; a key → dharmaśāstra text attributed to the mythical first man, Manu. Composed ca. 200 BCE–200 CE, it has been influential in shaping Hindu law and social norms, while facing modern criticism for caste and gender hierarchies.
Nāstika [ˈnaːst̪ɪkə] -- "Heterodox"; refers to philosophical schools that reject Vedic authority (e.g., Buddhism, Jainism, Cārvāka materialists). Contrasts with → āstika traditions that accept Vedic revelation.
Nīti [ˈniːt̪ɪ] -- Ethics, political strategy, or wise conduct; often refers to aphoristic literature providing practical guidance (e.g., Cāṇakya Nīti, Hitopadeśa).
Paṇḍit [ˈpəɳɖɪt̪] -- A scholar of Sanskrit texts, ritual procedures, or traditional learning; also a respectful title for learned individuals. Traditionally associated with → Brahmin caste but not exclusively.
Pariṣad [pərɪʂəd̪] -- A council, assembly, or learned gathering. In Vedic and Upaniṣadic contexts, refers to assemblies of sages; in modern usage, academic or religious councils.
Purāṇa [pʊˈraːɳə] -- "Ancient [story]"; a genre of Sanskrit texts combining mythology, cosmology, genealogy, and devotional narratives. Major Purāṇas include Bhāgavata, Viṣṇu, and Śiva Purāṇas. Composed ca. 300–1500 CE. → smṛti
Rāmāyaṇa [raːˈmaːjəɳə] -- Sanskrit epic attributed to sage Vālmīki, chronicling Prince Rāma's life, exile, and victory over demon-king Rāvaṇa. Composed ca. 300 BCE–300 CE, retold in countless regional and vernacular versions.
Rāsa [ˈraːsə] -- Aesthetic flavor, emotional essence, or devotional mood, particularly in literature, drama, and → bhakti expression. Nine classical rāsas include love, heroism, compassion, and devotion.
Ritual (Yajña/Pūjā) [ˈjəɟɲə/ˈpuːdʒaː] -- Yajña refers to Vedic fire sacrifices performed with elaborate procedures; pūjāindicates post-Vedic devotional offerings to deities, typically performed at home or temple with flowers, food, and prayers.
Ṛṣi [ˈr̩ʂɪ] -- Seer or sage; credited with receiving or composing sacred texts, especially Vedic hymns. Seven primordial ṛṣis (saptarṣi) are considered progenitors of Brahmanical lineages.
Sādhu/Sādhvī [ˈsaːd̪ʰʊ/ˈsaːd̪ʰʋiː] -- Male/female ascetic or renunciate practitioners devoted to spiritual discipline. Often members of specific → sampradāyas with distinctive practices and dress.
Sāṃkhya [ˈsaːŋkhyə] -- One of the six classical Hindu philosophical systems (→ darśana), emphasizing metaphysical dualism between puruṣa (consciousness) and prakṛti (primordial matter). Foundational text: Sāṃkhya Kārikā.
Sampradāya [səmprəˈd̪aːjə] -- A religious sect, lineage, or tradition within Hinduism, often marked by specific theological interpretations, textual canons, and ritual practices. Major Vaiṣṇava sampradāyas include Śrī, Brahma, Rudra, and Sanaka. → bhakti
Saṃskṛta (Sanskrit) [səŋˈskr̩t̪ə] -- The classical language of Hindu scripture and philosophy; literally "refined," "perfected," or "well-formed." Standardized by grammarian Pāṇini (ca. 400 BCE), it became the pan-Indian scholarly lingua franca.
Saṃsāra [səŋˈsaːrə] -- The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth governed by → karma, from which → mokṣa (liberation) is sought. Central concept across Hindu and Buddhist traditions.
Śāstra [ˈʃaːst̪rə] -- A systematic treatise or body of knowledge with normative authority. Categories include → dharmaśāstra (law), arthaśāstra (politics/economics), and kāmaśāstra (aesthetics/sexuality).
Śruti [ˈʃrʊt̪ɪ] -- "Heard" [from the divine]; the most authoritative category of Hindu scripture, including the four → Vedas and → Upaniṣads. Considered eternal, unauthored revelation transmitted through inspired ṛṣis. → smṛti
Smṛti [ˈsmr̩t̪ɪ] -- "Remembered"; secondary category of sacred literature including epics (→ itihāsa), law codes (→ dharmaśāstra), and → Purāṇas. Authoritative but revisable, unlike → śruti texts.
Tantra [ˈt̪ənt̪rə] -- A class of esoteric texts and practices emphasizing ritual techniques, visualization, and energy transformation for spiritual realization. Often associated with Śākta goddess worship and non-conventional spiritual methods.
Upaniṣad [ʊpəˈnɪʂəd̪] -- Philosophical texts exploring the nature of reality, self (→ ātman), and ultimate truth (→ brahman). Composed ca. 800–200 BCE, they form the theoretical foundation of → Vedānta philosophy. Literally "sitting near" [a teacher].
Vaiṣṇava [ˈʋɛʂɳəʋə] -- Pertaining to worship of Viṣṇu and his avatars (especially Krishna and Rāma). Major tradition within Hinduism with distinct theological schools and → sampradāyas.
Vedānta [ʋeˈd̪aːnt̪ə] -- "End/culmination of the Veda"; philosophical school interpreting the → Upaniṣads. Major sub-schools include Advaita (non-dualism), Viśiṣṭādvaita (qualified non-dualism), and Dvaita (dualism). → darśana
Veda [ˈʋeːd̪ə] -- The foundational scriptures of Hinduism, composed in Sanskrit and transmitted orally for over two millennia. Four collections: Ṛgveda (hymns), Sāmaveda (melodies), Yajurveda (sacrificial formulas), and Atharvaveda(spells/incantations). → śruti
Yajña [ˈjəɟɲə] -- Vedic ritual sacrifice involving offerings to deities through consecrated fire. In broader spiritual contexts, symbolizes self-offering or dedication to higher purpose. → ritual, Brāhmaṇa
Note on Pronunciation and Usage
Sanskrit terms in this glossary follow standard scholarly transliteration (IAST). Pronunciation guides reflect classical Sanskrit; actual pronunciation may vary by region and tradition. When encountering these terms in scholarly literature, note that different authors may emphasize various aspects of meaning depending on their interpretive framework.
For terms with contested definitions (marked as Scholarly debate or Critical perspective), readers should be aware that interpretation often reflects broader debates about Hindu tradition, colonial influence, and contemporary social dynamics.