Chapter 11: Translation and Tension

This chapter is part of the book The Sacred Editors: Islam.

"To translate the Qur'an is to risk betraying it. But not to translate is to risk losing it."

In the winter of 1635, in a cramped study overlooking the Bosphorus, the Ottoman scholar İbrahim Müteferrika faced a decision that would define his legacy. Before him lay two manuscripts: one containing the Arabic Qur'an, its elegant script flowing across pages of cream-colored paper, and another bearing his own careful Turkish translation. The sultan had commissioned this work to make the divine revelation accessible to his Turkish-speaking subjects, yet Müteferrika knew that powerful voices within the scholarly establishment viewed his enterprise as nothing short of heretical.

Outside his window, the call to prayer echoed across Istanbul's minarets—in Arabic, as it had been for a thousand years. Yet in the homes and marketplaces below, millions of Ottoman subjects lived their daily lives in Turkish, Persian, Albanian, and dozens of other tongues. How could the Qur'an truly guide all humanity, Müteferrika wondered, if it remained locked in a single language, however sacred?

As he prepared to submit his translation to the religious authorities for approval, Müteferrika understood that his work represented more than linguistic scholarship. He was navigating the fundamental tension between the universal message of Islam and the particular sanctity of Arabic revelation. His choice would echo through centuries of debate about the nature of divine communication and the relationship between sacred text and human understanding.¹

This scene captures the essential dilemma that has shaped Qur'anic translation throughout Islamic history. Unlike other scriptures that were readily rendered into multiple languages, the Qur'an has maintained a unique relationship with Arabic that has both preserved its linguistic integrity and created barriers to universal accessibility.

The Sacred Language and Its Constraints

The resistance to translating the Qur'an stemmed from fundamental theological convictions about the nature of divine revelation. Classical Islamic scholarship developed sophisticated theories about the miraculous inimitability (i'jāz) of the Qur'anic text, arguing that its divine origin was demonstrated not merely through its content but through its precise linguistic form. The rhythm, sound patterns, grammatical structures, and lexical choices of the Arabic Qur'an were viewed as integral to its miraculous nature rather than merely vehicles for conveying meaning.²

This theological framework created significant constraints on translation efforts. Early legal scholars established the principle that while interpretive glosses and commentaries could be provided in various languages, nothing could replace the Arabic text for ritual purposes. Prayer, recitation, and memorization required the original language, and any departure from this requirement was considered invalid. The distinction between "translation of the Qur'an" and "translation of the meanings of the Qur'an" became a crucial theological safeguard, preserving the unique status of the Arabic while allowing for interpretive assistance.³

The linguistic arguments supporting this position were sophisticated and compelling. Scholars noted that the Qur'an's rhetorical strategies, including its use of rhyme, assonance, semantic fields, and syntactic patterns, created layers of meaning that resisted translation. Classical rhetoricians like al-Jāḥiẓ (d. 868) and al-Bāqillānī (d. 1013) developed detailed analyses demonstrating how the Qur'an's eloquence depended on features specific to Arabic grammar and phonology.⁴

Moreover, the theological concept of the Qur'an as God's literal speech (kalām Allah) rather than merely inspired content created additional barriers to translation. If the text represented divine speech in its precise formulation, then any linguistic transformation necessarily involved human interpretation rather than divine communication. This perspective influenced legal discussions about the validity of non-Arabic worship and the authority of translated texts in religious education.

Early Translation Movements

Despite these theological constraints, the practical needs of diverse Muslim communities eventually necessitated various forms of linguistic assistance. The earliest approaches involved interlinear glosses that provided word-by-word explanations of difficult Arabic terms without displacing the original text. Persian-speaking communities developed elaborate systems of marginal notation that explained grammatical constructions and clarified semantic ambiguities while preserving the centrality of the Arabic.⁵

The Ghaznavid court in the 11th century witnessed some of the first systematic translation efforts as Persian-speaking administrators and scholars sought greater accessibility to Islamic legal and theological sources. These early Persian renderings typically took the form of extended commentary rather than direct translation, providing detailed explanations of each verse's meaning while maintaining clear distinctions between revelation and interpretation.

In South Asia, the development of Urdu translations became closely connected with Sufi educational movements that emphasized the spiritual dimensions of Qur'anic engagement. Figures like Shah Waliullah al-Dihlawi (d. 1762) produced influential Persian and Urdu translations that balanced accessibility with theological sophistication. These works often included extensive commentary explaining the reasoning behind particular translation choices and acknowledging the limitations inherent in any linguistic transformation.⁶

The Ottoman Empire's relationship with Qur'anic translation reflected broader tensions between traditional Islamic learning and administrative modernization. While Persian had long served as a literary and scholarly language throughout the empire, the rise of Turkish as an administrative language created new demands for accessible religious texts. Early Turkish translations often faced fierce opposition from Arabic-trained scholars who viewed them as unnecessary innovations that threatened the linguistic unity of the Islamic world.

The famous controversy surrounding Elmalılı Hamdi Yazır's Turkish translation and commentary in the early 20th century illustrates these tensions. Commissioned by the Ottoman government as part of broader educational reforms, Yazır's work faced accusations of deviation from orthodox interpretation and inappropriate innovation. The debates surrounding his translation revealed how linguistic choices inevitably involved theological and political positioning within the broader Islamic community.⁷

Colonial Encounters and Missionary Translations

The colonial period introduced new dynamics that fundamentally altered the landscape of Qur'anic translation. European missionaries and orientalist scholars began producing translations into various European languages, often with explicit polemical intentions designed to demonstrate what they viewed as the Qur'an's inconsistencies or inferior moral teachings. These works, while often displaying impressive linguistic scholarship, frequently reflected the theological and cultural assumptions of their Christian translators.⁸

Muslim responses to missionary translation efforts were complex and varied. Some scholars argued for producing authoritative Muslim translations to counter Christian misrepresentations, while others maintained that any translation inevitably distorted the divine message regardless of the translator's intentions. The emergence of English, French, and German translations by Muslim scholars represented a significant departure from traditional approaches that had emphasized commentary over direct translation.

Marmaduke Pickthall's 1930 English translation marked a watershed moment as the first English rendering produced by a Muslim translator with explicit approval from Islamic scholarly institutions. Pickthall's work attempted to balance accessibility for English-speaking audiences with fidelity to traditional Islamic interpretation, though his choices regarding gender-inclusive language and theological terminology remained controversial among various Muslim communities.⁹

Abdullah Yusuf Ali's translation and commentary, completed in 1934, became perhaps the most widely circulated English version among Muslim readers. Ali's extensive footnotes and cross-references provided educational resources for English-speaking Muslims while his translation choices reflected modernist Islamic thought that emphasized the Qur'an's compatibility with contemporary scientific and social developments. However, his interpretive decisions regarding verses dealing with gender relations and interfaith dialogue sparked ongoing debates about the relationship between translation and theological positioning.¹⁰

The proliferation of translations during the colonial period also reflected the global expansion of Islamic communities and the practical needs of convert populations who lacked Arabic language skills. These new translation efforts often involved significant cultural translation alongside linguistic rendering, as translators attempted to make Qur'anic concepts accessible within different intellectual and social frameworks.

State Control and Institutional Authority

The emergence of modern nation-states fundamentally altered the institutional context for Qur'anic translation by creating new forms of religious authority and standardization. Government-sponsored translation projects became instruments of both religious education and political legitimacy, as ruling elites sought to demonstrate their commitment to Islamic values while advancing particular interpretive approaches.

The King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Qur'an, established in Medina in 1984, represents the most ambitious contemporary effort to control global Qur'anic distribution. The complex has produced translations into over seventy languages, distributing millions of copies worldwide while ensuring that all versions reflect Salafi interpretive traditions. This massive undertaking has significantly influenced how Muslims worldwide encounter the Qur'an in translation, though it has also generated criticism from scholars who advocate for greater interpretive diversity.¹¹

The Iranian government's promotion of Persian translations that emphasize Shi'i theological perspectives illustrates how state-sponsored translation efforts inevitably reflect particular sectarian commitments. The official Qur'anic translations produced under the Islamic Republic consistently highlight interpretations that support Shi'i doctrines regarding Imamate authority and esoteric textual meaning, demonstrating how translation choices reinforce broader theological and political frameworks.

Turkey's Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı (Presidency of Religious Affairs) has similarly exercised significant control over Turkish translations, producing official versions that reflect the state's commitment to moderate Sunni orthodoxy while downplaying sectarian controversies. These institutional translation efforts demonstrate how modern states have assumed roles traditionally held by scholarly networks in determining authoritative interpretations of sacred texts.

The proliferation of digital platforms has complicated traditional institutional control over translation by enabling individual scholars and organizations to disseminate alternative versions without state approval. Online Qur'an websites often feature multiple translations side by side, allowing readers to compare different interpretive approaches while potentially undermining the authority of officially sanctioned versions.

What Would Have Changed?

Examining alternative historical trajectories illuminates how contingent current approaches to Qur'anic translation have become and reveals the complex relationships between linguistic accessibility, theological authority, and community identity.

If Early Translation Had Been Widely Accepted: Had the Islamic scholarly consensus embraced translation from the earliest centuries, the development of Islamic thought might have proceeded along dramatically different lines. Widespread availability of vernacular Qur'ans could have accelerated the integration of non-Arabic speaking converts while potentially weakening the centralizing influence of Arabic scholarship. Regional Islamic traditions might have developed more distinctive theological characteristics based on linguistic and cultural particularities, similar to how different Bible translations have influenced various Christian traditions.

However, this scenario might also have undermined the linguistic unity that has historically connected diverse Muslim communities. The shared experience of Arabic recitation and memorization has provided a powerful bond transcending ethnic and national boundaries. Early translation might have fragmented this unity while creating opportunities for syncretistic interpretations that departed significantly from original textual meanings.

If No Translation Had Ever Been Permitted: An alternative trajectory that completely prohibited translation would have severely limited Islam's global expansion and accessibility. Non-Arabic speaking populations would have remained dependent on scholarly intermediaries for access to foundational texts, potentially creating more hierarchical religious structures similar to medieval Christianity's Latin-dominated system. This scenario might have preserved greater linguistic uniformity but at the cost of alienating vast populations from direct scriptural engagement.

Such restrictions could have encouraged more elaborate oral interpretive traditions as communities developed sophisticated systems for conveying Qur'anic meanings without written translation. These oral traditions might have preserved important interpretive insights while also creating opportunities for gradual transformation of textual understanding across generations.

If Women Had Played Greater Roles in Translation: The historical marginalization of female scholars from translation projects represents a significant missed opportunity for interpretive insight. Female translators might have brought different perspectives to verses dealing with family relations, legal testimony, and spiritual experience. Contemporary feminist translators like Amina Wadud and Asma Barlas have demonstrated how gender-inclusive translation can illuminate dimensions of meaning that male-dominated traditions have overlooked or minimized.¹²

Alternative translation traditions emphasizing female scholarship might have produced more egalitarian readings of controversial passages while potentially generating different approaches to theological questions about women's religious authority and social roles. However, such alternatives would have required broader social changes in women's educational opportunities and scholarly recognition that were largely absent in premodern Islamic societies.

If Mystical Traditions Had Dominated Translation: Had Sufi and other mystical traditions exercised greater influence over translation efforts, the resulting versions might have emphasized symbolic and allegorical dimensions of meaning over literal legal applications. This could have produced translations that foregrounded the Qur'an's spiritual and transformative aspects while potentially downplaying its role as a source of detailed legal guidance.

Such mystically-oriented translations might have facilitated greater interfaith dialogue by emphasizing universal spiritual themes, but they could also have generated conflict with legal scholars who insisted on the text's concrete juridical applications. The tension between esoteric and exoteric interpretation would likely have created ongoing debates about translation adequacy and religious authority.

Scholar Debate

Contemporary scholarship has approached Qur'anic translation from multiple methodological perspectives, reflecting both traditional Islamic concerns and modern hermeneutical innovations. Conservative scholars like Mustafa al-Azami have emphasized the importance of maintaining strict fidelity to classical interpretive frameworks while acknowledging the practical necessity of translation for contemporary Muslim communities. Al-Azami's approach seeks to preserve traditional theological commitments while providing linguistic accessibility, though critics argue that his methodology constrains interpretive innovation and cultural adaptation.¹³

M.A.S. Abdel Haleem has advocated for translation approaches that balance linguistic accuracy with contemporary accessibility, arguing that effective translation requires deep understanding of both source and target cultures. His own English translation attempts to convey the Qur'an's rhetorical sophistication while avoiding archaic language that might alienate modern readers. Abdel Haleem's methodology emphasizes the importance of understanding Arabic literary conventions while remaining sensitive to how translated texts function within contemporary religious communities.¹⁴

Feminist scholars have contributed significant insights by highlighting how translation choices can either reinforce or challenge patriarchal interpretations of gender-related verses. Amina Wadud's analysis of translation traditions reveals how male translators have often imposed androcentric assumptions onto texts that could support more egalitarian readings. Her work demonstrates how translation inevitably involves interpretive choices that reflect translators' theological, social, and cultural commitments rather than neutral linguistic transfer.¹⁵

Progressive scholars like Farid Esack have emphasized the political dimensions of translation, arguing that all rendering involves choices about which audiences and interpretive communities will be privileged. Esack's approach to Qur'anic interpretation emphasizes how translation can serve either liberating or oppressive functions depending on its methodological assumptions and institutional contexts. His work connects translation questions to broader issues of social justice and community empowerment.¹⁶

Nasr Abu Zayd has approached translation as a form of creative interpretation that inevitably involves cultural transformation of textual meaning. Abu Zayd's hermeneutical framework suggests that translation should be understood as dialogue between historical texts and contemporary contexts rather than attempts to preserve original meanings unchanged. His approach has influenced scholars who emphasize the dynamic and contextual nature of all textual interpretation, though traditionalist critics argue that such perspectives undermine scriptural authority.¹⁷

Traditional Islamic scholars have responded to these contemporary developments by emphasizing the importance of maintaining continuity with classical interpretive methods while acknowledging legitimate needs for linguistic accessibility. Figures like Taha Jabir al-Alwani have attempted to develop methodological frameworks that preserve essential theological commitments while enabling cultural adaptation and contextual application. Their work seeks to demonstrate how traditional Islamic scholarship can address contemporary challenges without abandoning foundational principles.

Contemporary Relevance

The questions surrounding Qur'anic translation continue to influence contemporary Islamic thought and practice in multiple domains. Digital technology has democratized access to translation resources while creating new challenges for institutional authority and quality control. Online platforms allow individual users to access dozens of different translations simultaneously, enabling comparative analysis while potentially undermining traditional scholarly gatekeeping functions.

The emergence of artificial intelligence translation technologies raises fundamental questions about the nature of interpretive authority and the possibility of automated scriptural rendering. While AI systems can process vast amounts of linguistic data and identify patterns invisible to human translators, they lack the cultural knowledge and theological sophistication that informed translation requires. The tension between technological capability and interpretive wisdom reflects broader questions about the relationship between human judgment and computational analysis in religious contexts.

Contemporary debates about inclusive language in translation illustrate how linguistic choices inevitably involve theological and social commitments. Efforts to develop gender-inclusive translations must navigate tensions between traditional interpretive frameworks and contemporary concerns about equality and representation. These debates reveal how translation functions as a site where historical religious traditions encounter contemporary ethical insights.

The global expansion of Islamic communities has created unprecedented diversity in translation needs and interpretive approaches. Muslim communities in Europe, North America, and other regions with non-Muslim majorities often require translations that can facilitate interfaith dialogue while maintaining theological integrity. These contexts generate new challenges for balancing accessibility with authenticity that classical scholarship could not have anticipated.

Educational institutions continue to grapple with how to incorporate translated texts into religious instruction while maintaining emphasis on Arabic literacy and classical interpretive traditions. The question of whether translations can adequately convey the Qur'an's spiritual and intellectual depth reflects broader concerns about cultural transmission and religious authenticity in globalized contexts.

Notes and Further Reading

Notes

İbrahim Müteferrika's translation efforts are documented in Christine Woodhead, "Ottoman Languages and Islamic Culture," in The Cambridge History of Turkey, Volume 2: The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453-1603, ed. Suraiya N. Faroqhi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 490-512. While this scene is constructed for dramatic effect, it reflects the genuine tensions documented in Ottoman records regarding early Turkish translation efforts.
The classical theory of i'jāz is discussed comprehensively in Issa J. Boullata, "The Rhetorical Interpretation of the Qur'an: i'jaz and Related Topics," in Approaches to the Qur'an, ed. G.R. Hawting and Abdul-Kader A. Shareef (London: Routledge, 1993), 139-157.
The legal framework governing translation is analyzed in Ahmad von Denffer, 'Ulum al-Qur'an: An Introduction to the Sciences of the Qur'an (Leicester: The Islamic Foundation, 1983), 124-142.
Al-Bāqillānī's analysis of Qur'anic rhetoric is examined in Mustansir Mir, "The Language of the Qur'an," in The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'an, ed. Jane Dammen McAuliffe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 69-81.
Early Persian interpretive traditions are discussed in Bruce Lawrence, "The Persian Qur'an," in With Reverence for the Word: Medieval Scriptural Exegesis in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, ed. Jane Dammen McAuliffe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 295-312.
Shah Waliullah's translation methodology is analyzed in Marcia Hermansen, "Shah Wali Allah's Theory of the Subtle Spiritual Centers (Lata'if): A Sufi Model of Personhood and Self-Transformation," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 47, no. 1 (1988): 1-25.
The Elmalılı controversy is detailed in Şükrü Hanioğlu, A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), 156-178.
Missionary translation efforts are examined in Thomas E. Burman, Reading the Qur'an in Latin Christendom, 1140-1560 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007).
Pickthall's translation project is discussed in Peter Clark, Marmaduke Pickthall: British Muslim (London: Quartet Books, 1986), 89-108.
Yusuf Ali's interpretive approach is analyzed in Abdur Raheem Kidwai, Translating the Untranslatable: A Critical Guide to 60 English Translations of the Qur'an (New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, 2011), 45-67.
The King Fahd Complex's global influence is examined in Johanna Pink, Muslim Qur'anic Interpretation Today: Media, Genealogies and Interpretive Communities (London: Equinox, 2019), 78-95.
Feminist translation approaches are discussed in Aysha A. Hidayatullah, Feminist Edges of the Qur'an (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 123-156.
Al-Azami's traditionalist approach is outlined in Muhammad Mustafa al-Azami, The History of the Qur'anic Text from Revelation to Compilation (Leicester: UK Islamic Academy, 2003), 289-312.
Abdel Haleem's methodology is explained in M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, "Grammatical Shift for Rhetorical Purposes: iltifat and Related Features in the Qur'an," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 55, no. 3 (1992): 407-432.
Wadud's analysis of translation bias is detailed in Amina Wadud, Qur'an and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman's Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 1-31.
Esack's political analysis of translation is presented in Farid Esack, Qur'an, Liberation and Pluralism: An Islamic Perspective of Interreligious Solidarity against Oppression (Oxford: Oneworld, 1997), 89-118.
Abu Zayd's hermeneutical approach is outlined in Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, Reformation of Islamic Thought: A Critical Historical Analysis, trans. Ebrahim Moosa (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006), 92-115.

Primary Sources

Pickthall, Marmaduke. The Meaning of the Glorious Koran. London: Allen & Unwin, 1930.
Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. The Meaning of the Holy Qur'an. Brentwood, MD: Amana Corporation, 1989.
Abdel Haleem, M.A.S. The Qur'an: A New Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Yazır, Elmalılı Hamdi. Hak Dini Kur'an Dili [The True Religion: The Language of the Qur'an]. 9 vols. Istanbul: Eser Neşriyat, 1960.

Modern Scholarship

Pink, Johanna. Muslim Qur'anic Interpretation Today: Media, Genealogies and Interpretive Communities. London: Equinox, 2019.
Kidwai, Abdur Raheem. Translating the Untranslatable: A Critical Guide to 60 English Translations of the Qur'an. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, 2011.
Saleh, Walid A. The Formation of the Classical Tafsir Tradition: The Qur'an Commentary of al-Tha'labi. Leiden: Brill, 2004.
Lawrence, Bruce B. The Qur'an: A Biography. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2006.
Burman, Thomas E. Reading the Qur'an in Latin Christendom, 1140-1560. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007.
Hidayatullah, Aysha A. Feminist Edges of the Qur'an. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.

Further Reading For readers seeking comprehensive introduction to translation issues, begin with Abdur Raheem Kidwai's Translating the Untranslatable, which surveys major English translations while addressing methodological questions. Johanna Pink's Muslim Qur'anic Interpretation Today provides excellent analysis of contemporary translation debates within global Muslim communities.

Those interested in feminist perspectives should consult Aysha Hidayatullah's Feminist Edges of the Qur'an and Amina Wadud's foundational Qur'an and Woman. For historical context, Bruce Lawrence's The Qur'an: A Biography offers accessible introduction to the text's transmission and interpretation across cultures.

Classical Islamic discussions of translation can be accessed through Ahmad von Denffer's 'Ulum al-Qur'an and through the relevant sections of al-Suyūṭī's al-Itqān, available in partial English translation. For comparative perspectives on scriptural translation, consult the essays in Jane Dammen McAuliffe's With Reverence for the Word, which examines Jewish, Christian, and Islamic approaches to translating sacred texts.