Appendix C: Glossary of Terms
Aleppo Codex — A 10th-century manuscript of the Hebrew Bible, considered one of the most authoritative versions of the Masoretic Text. Partially destroyed in 1947 riots, with missing sections creating ongoing scholarly challenges. Named for its preservation in Aleppo, Syria.
Apocrypha — A collection of ancient Jewish writings not included in the rabbinic Hebrew Bible but preserved in some Christian Bibles, especially Catholic and Orthodox canons. Examples include Tobit, Judith, and 1-2 Maccabees. The term means "hidden things" in Greek.
Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli) — The most widely studied version of the Talmud, compiled in Babylonia between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE. It includes legal debate, stories, and rabbinic commentary on the Mishnah. More extensive than the Jerusalem Talmud and considered more authoritative in most Jewish communities.
Canon — A fixed list of texts considered authoritative and sacred by a religious community. Scholarly debate: The process and timing of canonical closure remains contested, with some arguing for gradual development versus decisive moments of determination.
Dead Sea Scrolls — Ancient Jewish manuscripts found near Qumran (1947-1956) that include biblical books, sectarian writings, and alternative versions of known scriptures. They reveal significant textual diversity in Second Temple Judaism and include the earliest known biblical manuscripts.
Deuterocanonical Books — Texts considered canonical by some Jewish and Christian communities (especially Catholics and Orthodox), but excluded by rabbinic Judaism. These books were included in the Greek Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Masoretic tradition that became standard for rabbinic Judaism.
Documentary Hypothesis — The scholarly theory that the Torah (Pentateuch) was compiled from multiple earlier sources, traditionally labeled J (Yahwist), E (Elohist), D (Deuteronomist), and P (Priestly). Ongoing debate:Contemporary scholars continue to refine and challenge aspects of this classical theory.
Gemara — The rabbinic commentary and discussion that, together with the Mishnah, forms the Talmud. Exists in both Babylonian and Jerusalem versions, with the Babylonian being more comprehensive and widely studied.
Genizah — A storage place for worn-out Hebrew texts that could not be discarded due to their sacred content. The Cairo Genizah, discovered in the late 19th century, contained hundreds of thousands of medieval Jewish manuscripts.
Halakhah — Jewish law, encompassing biblical commandments, rabbinic rulings, and legal codes governing religious and ethical behavior. Literally means "the way" or "the path." Different Jewish movements interpret halakhic authority differently.
Hasmonean — The Jewish dynasty that ruled an independent Jewish kingdom (164-63 BCE) after the Maccabean revolt against the Seleucid Empire. This period saw significant textual development and sectarian diversity.
Ketuvim — The "Writings," the third section of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh), including Psalms, Proverbs, Job, and other poetic, wisdom, and historical books. The last section to achieve canonical status, with some books remaining disputed into the rabbinic period.
Leningrad Codex — A complete manuscript of the Hebrew Bible from 1008 CE, serving as the basis for most modern printed editions of the Hebrew Bible. Currently the oldest complete manuscript of the entire Hebrew Bible.
Masoretic Text (MT) — The standardized Hebrew version of the Bible developed by Jewish scribes (Masoretes) between the 6th and 10th centuries CE. They added vowel points, cantillation marks, and marginal notes to preserve pronunciation and interpretation. Forms the basis for most printed Jewish Bibles today.
Midrash — Rabbinic interpretation of biblical texts, often exploring hidden meanings, filling narrative gaps, or resolving contradictions. Can be legal (halakhic) or non-legal (aggadic). Represents a method of reading that assumes multiple layers of meaning in Scripture.
Mishnah — The first written collection of Oral Torah, compiled around 200 CE by Rabbi Judah the Prince (Rabbi Judah haNasi). Organized into six orders covering various aspects of Jewish law and practice. Forms the foundational layer of the Talmud.
Nevi'im — The "Prophets," the second section of the Hebrew Bible, including both historical books (Former Prophets: Joshua through Kings) and prophetic literature (Latter Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets).
Oral Torah — Rabbinic traditions and interpretations believed to have been transmitted orally alongside the Written Torah from Moses at Sinai. Denominational differences: Orthodox Judaism considers this divinely revealed; Conservative Judaism sees it as inspired human interpretation; Reform Judaism emphasizes its historical development.
Pentateuch — The first five books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Also called the Torah or Five Books of Moses. Considered the most sacred and authoritative section of Jewish Scripture.
Pesharim — A genre of biblical commentary found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, interpreting scripture as referring to events in the writers' own time. Demonstrates how sectarian communities read biblical prophecy as contemporary revelation.
Piyyut — Jewish liturgical poetry, often composed for special holidays or services and integrated into synagogue worship. Represents a creative expansion of statutory prayer, with famous examples including Unetaneh Tokef and Akdamut.
Pseudepigrapha — Ancient Jewish writings attributed to biblical figures but not included in any major canonical collection. Examples include 1 Enoch, Jubilees, and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. These texts illuminate diverse Jewish theological development during the Second Temple period.
Qumran — The archaeological site near the Dead Sea where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered. Likely inhabited by the Essenes, a Jewish sect that preserved alternative textual traditions and sectarian writings.
Responsa (She'elot u-Teshuvot) — Rabbinic answers to legal or ethical questions posed by individuals or communities. Literally "questions and answers." A key method for applying Jewish law to new circumstances across different historical periods and geographical locations.
Samaritan Pentateuch — A version of the Torah preserved by the Samaritan community, differing from the Masoretic Text in about 6,000 places, mostly minor. Reflects the religious schism between Samaritans and mainstream Judaism regarding the proper place of worship and interpretation of law.
Second Temple Period — The era from the rebuilding of the Jerusalem Temple (c. 515 BCE) until its destruction by the Romans (70 CE). A crucial period for Jewish textual development, sectarian diversity, and the emergence of rabbinic Judaism.
Septuagint (LXX) — An early Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, produced by Jewish scholars in Alexandria beginning in the 3rd century BCE. Contains additional books not found in the Masoretic canon and often differs in wording from the Hebrew text. Became the Old Testament for early Christians.
Siddur — The Jewish prayer book, containing the daily, Sabbath, and festival liturgies. Different Jewish communities (Ashkenazi, Sephardi, etc.) maintain distinct liturgical traditions reflected in varying prayer book texts.
Talmud — The central text of rabbinic Judaism, consisting of the Mishnah and the Gemara (commentary and discussion). Two versions exist: the Babylonian Talmud (more comprehensive and authoritative) and the Jerusalem Talmud (earlier but less complete).
Tanakh — Acronym for the three parts of the Hebrew Bible: Torah (Law), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). The complete Jewish canonical scriptures, totaling 24 books in the traditional Jewish count.
Targum — Aramaic translations and paraphrases of the Hebrew Bible, used in synagogue reading and study during the late Second Temple and early rabbinic periods. Often interpretive rather than literal, reflecting contemporary theological concerns.
Tkhines — Yiddish devotional prayers composed primarily by and for women, addressing daily concerns and life cycle events. Represent an important but often overlooked tradition of female Jewish religious creativity.
Torah — Can refer narrowly to the Five Books of Moses (Pentateuch) or more broadly to all Jewish sacred teaching, including written and oral traditions. Multiple meanings: Context determines whether "Torah" refers to the scroll, the text, the teaching, or the entire system of Jewish law and wisdom.
Tosefta — A companion to the Mishnah, containing additional rabbinic teachings and alternative versions of Mishnaic material, compiled around the 3rd century CE. Provides important insight into early rabbinic textual diversity.
Yavneh (Jamnia) — A town in Roman Judea where, according to tradition, rabbis reconstituted Jewish leadership after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Historical debate: Scholars question whether formal canonical decisions were actually made there or whether the "Council of Yavneh" is a later legend.
Zohar — The foundational text of Jewish mysticism (Kabbalah), written in Aramaic and attributed to the 2nd-century Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai. Actually compiled in 13th-century Spain, likely by Moses de León. Contested status: Treated as nearly canonical by some Jewish communities while remaining controversial in others.