Chapter 3: Shaping the Canon - The Prophets and Writings; Influences from Babylon, Persia, Egypt

This chapter is part of the book The Sacred Editors: Judaism.

"These are not the same scrolls our ancestors knew."

Jerusalem, 175 BCE. In the shadow of the temple's eastern wall, a scribe named Mattathias ben Shimon examines a collection of scrolls that arrived yesterday with traders from Alexandria. The autumn air carries the scent of burning olive oil from the temple's perpetual fires, mixed with the dust of construction—Antiochus IV's building projects that are transforming the holy city into a Greek polis. Mattathias spreads the scrolls carefully on a wooden table, his practiced eyes scanning the Greek letters that spell out familiar Hebrew words in foreign script.

The Book of Isaiah that he has memorized since childhood appears here in translation, but with subtle differences that trouble him. A prophecy about the coming king reads "virgin" (παρθένος) instead of "young woman" (עלמה). The book of Daniel, which he knows from temple archives, includes strange new stories here—three young men in a fiery furnace, a prophet in a lions' den, additional prayers and visions he's never encountered.

Some scrolls contain books entirely unknown to him: Judith, a tale of a brave widow defeating an Assyrian general; Tobit, a story of angelic intervention and family loyalty; expanded versions of Esther and Daniel with lengthy prayers and dramatic additions. There are additional psalms, new wisdom teachings, historical accounts of recent Maccabean victories written in elegant Greek prose.

Mattathias frowns as he rolls up the scroll of Greek Daniel. Outside, he can hear the sounds of young men exercising in the gymnasium that has replaced traditional courtyard schools. The high priesthood itself has been sold to Jason, who promises the Seleucid king more taxes and cultural cooperation. Hebrew learning declines while Greek literature flourishes. Even the sacred scrolls seem to be multiplying, adapting, changing to suit foreign tongues and foreign ideas.

"Which of these," he wonders aloud, touching the unfamiliar Greek texts, "still carry the authentic voice of our God? And who has the authority to decide?"

His questions echo through centuries of Jewish history. While the Torah had achieved broad recognition as foundational Scripture by the Persian period, the rest of what would become the Hebrew Bible—the Prophets (Nevi'im) and Writings (Ketuvim)—developed through a far more complex and contested process that would take centuries to resolve.

A Library, Not a Canon

The Hebrew Bible's three-part structure—Torah (Law), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings)—might suggest an orderly development, but this organization obscures the messy reality of early Jewish textual culture. Before these boundaries crystallized, Jewish communities maintained diverse libraries of sacred literature that varied significantly across regions and sectarian groups.

The Prophets section eventually encompassed both historical narratives (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings) and prophetic proclamations (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets). The Writings included an even more diverse collection: wisdom literature (Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes), poetry (Psalms, Song of Songs, Lamentations), festival scrolls (Ruth, Esther), historical retellings (Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah), and apocalyptic visions (Daniel).

But dozens of other texts circulated among Jewish communities and competed for authoritative status: 1 Enoch with its elaborate angelology and cosmic visions, Jubilees with its retelling of Genesis and Exodus, Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, Psalms of Solomon, 1-4 Maccabees documenting heroic resistance to persecution, Ben Sira's practical wisdom teachings, Wisdom of Solomon's philosophical theology, and narrative works like Tobit and Judith that combined entertainment with moral instruction.

Different communities revered different collections. The Dead Sea Scrolls preserve multiple versions of biblical books alongside sectarian texts that never entered any canon. Hellenistic Jews in Egypt and elsewhere embraced books unknown in Palestinian Hebrew circles. Even within Palestine, groups like the Essenes, Pharisees, and Sadducees maintained distinctive textual preferences that reflected their theological and political differences.

Emanuel Tov observes that "the Second Temple period was characterized by textual plurality rather than uniformity. There was no single 'Bible'—only libraries of sacred literature with fluid boundaries that communities negotiated according to their particular needs and circumstances."²⁶

Babylon: Exile and Theological Innovation

The Babylonian exile (586-538 BCE) triggered a theological revolution that fundamentally reshaped Jewish textual culture. Traditional sources of religious authority—temple, monarchy, land—were destroyed or compromised. In response, scribal elites began systematically collecting, editing, and interpreting older traditions to create new forms of portable religious identity.

The Deuteronomistic historians transformed earlier royal annals and tribal stories into a sweeping theological narrative spanning Joshua through Kings. Their editorial framework explained national catastrophe as the inevitable consequence of covenant failure: Israel and Judah fell because they abandoned YHWH for foreign gods, ignored prophetic warnings, and violated the centralized worship commanded in Deuteronomy. This interpretation provided theological meaning for historical disaster while establishing written prophecy as authoritative divine communication.

The exile period also saw unprecedented editorial activity around prophetic literature. Earlier prophets had been primarily oral figures, but exile-period scribes collected their sayings into scrolls that could preserve divine word even when temple worship and land-based identity were impossible. The books of Jeremiah and Ezekiel took shape during this traumatic period, combining authentic prophetic oracles with later editorial interpretation that applied ancient warnings to contemporary circumstances.

Isaiah underwent particularly complex development, as editors wove together oracles from multiple periods into a unified scroll. First Isaiah (chapters 1-39) preserves 8th-century warnings about Assyrian invasion. Second Isaiah (chapters 40-55) contains 6th-century comfort for exiles. Third Isaiah (chapters 56-66) addresses post-exilic restoration challenges. The final product created theological continuity across centuries of historical upheaval.

Konrad Schmid notes that "Babylonian exile didn't simply preserve earlier tradition—it fundamentally transformed Jewish theology, creating new frameworks of monotheism, universalism, and messianic hope that would determine which later texts seemed authentically Jewish and which appeared foreign or dangerous."²⁷

Persia: Imperial Authorization and Scribal Flourishing

The Persian period (539-332 BCE) brought political stability and imperial policies that favored local religious traditions. Persian rulers often governed subject populations through charters of ancestral law, providing official recognition for traditional legal and religious systems while maintaining imperial oversight. This context fostered unprecedented scribal activity throughout the Jewish world.

The Torah likely gained formal recognition as the constitutional law of the Judean province during this period, but Persian policy also encouraged the preservation and systematization of other textual traditions. Scribal schools flourished in Jerusalem, Babylon, and throughout the diaspora, serving not only as copyists but as editors who collected prophetic oracles, organized psalm collections, and developed wisdom traditions that would compete for canonical inclusion.

The book of Chronicles exemplifies Persian-period literary activity. This alternative history of David and Solomon offered a more positive assessment of the monarchy than Samuel-Kings, emphasizing temple-building, liturgical innovation, and divine blessing rather than political failure and moral compromise. Chronicles reflects post-exilic concerns about proper worship, genealogical legitimacy, and the relationship between past and present that influenced which books later communities would consider authoritative.

Persian-period wisdom literature engaged seriously with international intellectual traditions while maintaining distinctively Jewish theological commitments. Job wrestles with Mesopotamian and Egyptian theodicy literature, raising fundamental questions about divine justice and human suffering that sometimes challenge conventional piety. Ecclesiastes (Qohelet) reflects Hellenistic philosophical influences while maintaining skeptical perspectives that later readers found almost blasphemous.

Some wisdom texts would struggle for canonical acceptance precisely because they pushed theological boundaries. Job's apparent questioning of divine justice troubled readers who preferred more straightforward affirmations of moral order. Ecclesiastes' skeptical outlook seemed to contradict fundamental teachings about divine purpose and human meaning. But their preservation reveals communities willing to canonize doubt alongside certainty, philosophical inquiry alongside devotional praise.

Greece: Hellenization and the Septuagint Challenge

Alexander the Great's conquest (334-323 BCE) brought Jewish communities under Greek cultural influence that proved both creative and threatening. The large Jewish community in Alexandria undertook an ambitious translation project that would have lasting consequences: rendering Hebrew scriptures into Greek for Jews who no longer understood their ancestral language fluently.

The Septuagint (LXX) became far more than translation—it evolved into an alternative canon that included not only translated Hebrew books but also texts originally composed in Greek: Wisdom of Solomon's philosophical theology, 2-4 Maccabees' accounts of heroic martyrdom, additions to Esther and Daniel that provided prayers and expanded narratives, and other works that reflected Jewish engagement with Hellenistic culture.

The Septuagint also preserved variant textual traditions that differed significantly from what would become the standard Hebrew text. The Greek version of Jeremiah is one-seventh shorter than the Hebrew and arranges oracles in different order. Greek Daniel includes additional stories about Susanna's vindication and Daniel's exposure of idol worship. Some Psalms appear in expanded forms with extra verses and alternative arrangements.

Timothy Michael Law argues that "the Septuagint wasn't simply a Greek version of the Hebrew Bible—it was the Bible for millions of Jews throughout the Mediterranean world, representing authentic Jewish theological development rather than deviation from Palestinian tradition."²⁸

But this textual expansion created growing tension as these Greek additions were increasingly embraced by the emerging Christian movement. Church fathers found in Septuagint books like Wisdom of Solomon theological vocabulary for understanding Jesus' death and resurrection. The "virgin birth" prophecy in Greek Isaiah became central to Christian doctrine. By the 2nd century CE, the association between Christianity and the broader Septuagint canon made these books problematic for Jewish boundary maintenance.

Selective Preservation: What Survived and Why

By the end of the Second Temple period (70 CE), certain patterns of textual authority had emerged, though formal canonical boundaries remained fluid for centuries. Several factors consistently influenced which books gained widespread recognition as sacred literature:

Liturgical Use: Texts employed in regular worship acquired sacred status through ceremonial repetition. Psalms sung in temple service, readings prescribed for festivals, and prayers associated with special occasions gained authority through communal practice rather than formal declaration.

Prophetic Attribution: Books connected to recognized prophets carried special weight as repositories of divine revelation. This explains why Psalms were attributed to David (understood as a prophet) and Proverbs to Solomon (whose wisdom was divinely given), even when internal evidence suggested more complex authorship.

Theological Compatibility: Texts that reinforced emerging Jewish orthodoxy—strict monotheism, covenant theology, divine justice, ritual purity—were more likely to be preserved than those that seemed to contradict or complicate core beliefs. Books that appeared to challenge central doctrines faced greater scrutiny and potential exclusion.

Linguistic Authenticity: As Hebrew was increasingly reasserted as the sacred language in response to Christian appropriation of Greek texts, books preserved only in translation faced disadvantage regardless of their content or original composition language.

Community Control: Texts that supported established religious leadership—priestly authority, scribal interpretation, institutional governance—were more likely to receive official recognition than those that challenged existing power structures or suggested alternative forms of religious organization.

These factors explain both inclusions and exclusions that might otherwise seem arbitrary. Esther barely achieved canonical status despite never mentioning God because it provided liturgical foundation for the popular festival of Purim. Ecclesiastes survived despite theological concerns because it was attributed to Solomon and interpreted as exploring rather than rejecting divine wisdom. But 1 Enoch, despite widespread popularity and theological sophistication, was eventually marginalized because its elaborate angelology and cosmic dualism seemed to compromise strict monotheism.

What Would Have Changed?

Different historical circumstances or editorial decisions might have produced a dramatically different Jewish canon with profound theological implications. These alternative scenarios are grounded in serious scholarly analysis of texts that nearly achieved canonical status or were revered in some Jewish communities.

An Apocalyptic Canon: James VanderKam argues that if books like 1 Enoch, Jubilees, and 4 Ezra had achieved canonical status alongside Daniel, Jewish theology would have emphasized "cosmic dualism, elaborate angelology, and detailed eschatological speculation that could have aligned Judaism more closely with early Christian apocalyptic development."²⁹ This alternative canon might have produced a Judaism more focused on cosmic conflict and otherworldly hope rather than historical covenant and ethical obligation.

Hellenistic Integration: Timothy Michael Law suggests that if Wisdom of Solomon and other Greek compositions had been universally accepted rather than marginalized, Jewish thought might have developed "stronger philosophical dimensions that engaged more directly with Platonic and Stoic traditions, potentially producing Jewish theology comparable to later Christian and Islamic philosophical synthesis."³⁰ Such integration might have made Judaism more intellectually appealing to educated Gentiles while potentially compromising its distinctive particularism.

Broader Historical Memory: The exclusion of 1-2 Maccabees from the rabbinic canon, despite their Hebrew origins and historical importance, meant that Judaism lost detailed scriptural accounts of successful resistance to persecution. John Collins argues that their canonical inclusion might have "strengthened traditions of political resistance and armed struggle within rabbinic Judaism, potentially affecting Jewish responses to later oppression."³¹

Alternative Wisdom Traditions: Ben Sira's exclusion from the Hebrew canon, despite its Hebrew composition and widespread early popularity, removed a text that explicitly connected wisdom study with temple service and priestly authority. Benjamin Wright suggests that its inclusion might have "strengthened the integration of intellectual and liturgical traditions within Judaism, potentially affecting how later rabbis understood the relationship between study and worship."³²

Scholar Debate

Contemporary scholarship continues debating how and when canonical boundaries were established, with significant implications for understanding Jewish religious development and authority structures.

Emanuel Tov emphasizes textual fluidity throughout the Second Temple period, arguing that "canonical consciousness developed gradually through liturgical use and scholarly discussion rather than through formal decisions by recognized authorities." His analysis of manuscript evidence from Qumran demonstrates that multiple versions of books continued circulating well into the Common Era, suggesting that textual standardization was a slow process rather than a discrete event.³³

Timothy Michael Law challenges traditional narratives about Hebrew textual priority by demonstrating that the Septuagint represents "an authentic alternative Jewish canonical tradition that was Jewish before it became Christian." His work suggests that the eventual marginalization of Greek biblical books reflected political and cultural pressures rather than inherent theological superiority of Hebrew traditions.³⁴

James VanderKam focuses on sectarian diversity revealed in the Dead Sea Scrolls, showing that different Jewish groups maintained "substantially different collections of authoritative texts well into the Common Era." His research demonstrates that Second Temple Judaism was far more textually diverse than later rabbinic or Christian traditions would suggest, with implications for understanding ancient Jewish religious authority.³⁵

Lee Martin McDonald traces rabbinic discussions of canonical boundaries to argue that "formal closure occurred gradually through the early centuries CE rather than through decisive moments of official determination." His analysis of talmudic literature shows continuing debate about marginal books like Ecclesiastes and Esther well into the medieval period.³⁶

John Collins examines apocalyptic literature to demonstrate how "cosmic and eschatological concerns that were central to Second Temple Judaism were systematically marginalized in the canonization process." His work suggests that the exclusion of apocalyptic texts represented a deliberate rabbinic choice to emphasize historical covenant over cosmic speculation.³⁷

Most scholars agree that canonical boundaries remained fluid throughout the Second Temple period, with different communities maintaining different collections of sacred texts. The process of achieving fixed boundaries was gradual, contested, and heavily influenced by theological, linguistic, and political factors that continue to shape Jewish textual culture today.

Why It Still Matters

Understanding canonical formation illuminates both the diversity of early Judaism and the factors that shaped modern Jewish textual priorities. The Hebrew Bible represents not just what was preserved but what was chosen for preservation from a much larger library of Jewish literature that addressed different theological questions and spiritual needs.

These ancient decisions continue affecting Jewish religious life in concrete ways. The exclusion of apocalyptic literature helps explain why Judaism developed differently from Christianity regarding eschatology and afterlife beliefs. The marginalization of certain wisdom texts influenced how Jewish tradition understands the relationship between intellectual study and spiritual practice. The rejection of Greek additions affected how Judaism relates to broader philosophical traditions.

For contemporary Jews navigating between tradition and innovation, canonical formation offers instructive precedents about how religious communities successfully balanced reverence for inherited texts with openness to new insights and changing circumstances. The canonical process demonstrates how ancient communities maintained distinctive identity while adapting to imperial pressures, cultural change, and theological challenge.

Modern Jewish communities inherit both the preserved canonical tradition and awareness of what was excluded. Study of non-canonical texts enriches understanding of Jewish thought's historical development while highlighting distinctive emphases in what did survive. Contemporary Jewish scholars and spiritual leaders continue to wrestle with questions about which ancient voices deserve renewed attention and how traditional boundaries can accommodate new insights without losing essential identity.

Ultimately, canonical formation reveals that sacred texts emerge not from isolated inspiration but from sustained community engagement across changing historical circumstances. The books that survived to become Scripture did so because communities found them indispensable for the ongoing work of remaining faithful to ancient covenant while addressing contemporary challenges. Understanding this process deepens appreciation for both the texts that were preserved and the communities that preserved them across centuries of change and uncertainty.

Notes

Letter of Aristeas, trans. R.J.H. Shutt, in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, ed. James H. Charlesworth. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1985, 2:7-34.
Babylonian Talmud: Megillah 9a, trans. Soncino Edition.
The Wisdom of Ben Sira, trans. Patrick W. Skehan and Alexander A. Di Lella. New York: Doubleday, 1987, Prologue.
Tov, Emanuel. The Text-Critical Use of the Septuagint in Biblical Research. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1997, 67.
Law, Timothy Michael. When God Spoke Greek, 178-203.
Hengel, Martin. The Septuagint as Christian Scripture. London: T&T Clark, 2002, 89-112.
Law, Timothy Michael. When God Spoke Greek, 234-267.
Tov, Emanuel. Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, 156-189.
Hengel, Martin. The Septuagint as Christian Scripture, 134-167.
Dorival, Gilles, Marguerite Harl, and Olivier Munnich. La Bible grecque des Septante. Paris: Cerf, 1988, 145-178.

Canon Formation Studies

Chapman, Stephen B. The Law and the Prophets: A Study in Old Testament Canon Formation. Mohr Siebeck, 2000.
McDonald, Lee Martin. The Formation of the Christian Biblical Canon, rev. ed. Hendrickson, 2017.
Leiman, Sid Z. The Canonization of Hebrew Scripture: The Talmudic and Midrashic Evidence. Archon Books, 1976.
Lim, Timothy H. The Formation of the Jewish Canon. Yale University Press, 2013.
Barton, John. Oracles of God: Perceptions of Ancient Prophecy in Israel after the Exile. Oxford University Press, 1986.

Prophetic Literature Development

Blenkinsopp, Joseph. A History of Prophecy in Israel. Westminster John Knox Press, 2003.
Sweeney, Marvin A. The Twelve Prophets. 2 vols. Liturgical Press, 2000.
Williamson, H.G.M. Studies in Persian Period History and Historiography. Mohr Siebeck, 2004.
Petersen, David L. The Prophetic Literature: An Introduction. Westminster John Knox Press, 2002.

Wisdom Literature and the Writings

Crenshaw, James L. Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction, 3rd ed. Westminster John Knox Press, 2010.
Murphy, Roland E. The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature, 3rd ed. Eerdmans, 2002.
Brown, William P. Wisdom's Wonder: Character, Creation, and Crisis in the Bible's Wisdom Literature. Eerdmans, 2014.
Perdue, Leo G. Wisdom Literature: A Theological History. Westminster John Knox Press, 2007.

Imperial Contexts and Jewish Identity

Grabbe, Lester L. A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period. 4 vols. T&T Clark, 2004-2014.
Hoglund, Kenneth G. Achaemenid Imperial Administration in Syria-Palestine and the Missions of Ezra and Nehemiah. Scholars Press, 1992.
Davies, Philip R. Scribes and Schools: The Canonization of the Hebrew Scriptures. Westminster John Knox Press, 1998.
Boda, Mark J., and Jamie R. Novotny, eds. From the Foundations to the Crenellations: Essays on Temple Building in the Ancient Near East and Hebrew Bible. Ugarit-Verlag, 2010.