Sacred Editors

Appendix A: Brief Biographies - 100 Women Across Traditions

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This chapter is part of the book The Sacred Editors: Lost Women.

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Note: Entries marked with an asterisk () indicate contested historical evidence or legendary status. Cross-references to the glossary (Appendix C) and further reading (Appendix D) are provided where relevant. For detailed manuscript sources, see Appendix B.*

Buddhism

Mahapajapati Gotami (6th-5th century BCE, India) Aunt and foster mother of the Buddha, she became the first ordained Buddhist nun (bhikkhuni) after petitioning the Buddha three times to allow women into the monastic Sangha. Her persistence established the foundation for female ordination, though these lineages were later suppressed or discontinued in many Theravāda regions. Her story appears in the Vinaya texts and illustrates early tensions about women's spiritual capacity.¹

Kisagotami (5th century BCE, India) A disciple of the Buddha celebrated for her verse in the Therigatha (Verses of Elder Nuns), which recounts her journey from devastating grief over her son's death to spiritual awakening through understanding impermanence. Her story remains one of Buddhism's most poignant narratives on suffering and liberation, demonstrating how personal tragedy can become spiritual wisdom.²

Vimala (5th century BCE, India) An early nun whose Therigatha poem expresses liberation from sexual objectification and social constraints. Her direct, unflinching language challenged prevailing norms around female virtue and agency: "Free am I, free from the three crooked things: mortar, pestle, and crooked husband." Her verses survive in Pali manuscripts and represent radical female self-assertion.³

Dhammadinna (3rd century BCE, India) Celebrated as one of the wisest female teachers in the Pali Canon and declared by the Buddha to be foremost among nuns who taught the Dhamma. The Culavedalla Sutta records her sophisticated dialogue with her former husband Visakha on profound aspects of Buddhist doctrine, demonstrating female authority in philosophical discourse and systematic teaching.⁴

Queen Samavati (3rd century BCE, India)* Royal patron and devoted follower of the Buddha, known for her deep compassion and unwavering commitment to dharma practice. Though not ordained as a nun, she created opportunities for women to hear the teachings and supported the early Sangha. Her story, preserved in the Dhammapada Commentary, represents the important role of lay female supporters in Buddhism's development.⁵

Lady Zhao (Zhao Huan) (4th century CE, China) Buddhist lay teacher and patron under the Jin dynasty who assisted in the translation and commentary of early Chinese Buddhist texts. Her work contributed to the localization of Mahayana thought in East Asia, particularly in adapting Indian concepts for Chinese religious culture. Her name appears in colophons of several translated sutras.⁶

Queen Srimala (circa 5th century CE, India or Nepal)* Attributed as the central speaker in the Srimaladevi Simhanada Sutra, which promotes key Mahayana doctrines including tathagatagarbha (Buddha-nature) and the bodhisattva path. Whether historical or literary, her voice represents a rare example of a female sutra speaker given direct theological authority in canonical Buddhist literature.⁷

Yeshe Tsogyal (8th century CE, Tibet)* Considered a consort and chief disciple of Padmasambhava, she is revered as a key transmitter of Vajrayana teachings in Tibet. Regarded by many as a female Buddha, she is credited with authoring or inspiring numerous terma (hidden treasure texts) that were later discovered by tertöns (treasure-revealers). Her historical existence is debated, but her influence on Tibetan Buddhism is profound.⁸

Zongchi (Dharma Master Zongchi) (8th century CE, China) Disciple of Huineng, the sixth patriarch of Chan Buddhism, and one of the few women recorded in early Chan hagiographical literature. She achieved enlightenment and became a recognized teacher, though details of her teachings have not survived independently. Her inclusion in lineage records demonstrates that women could achieve the highest realization in Chan tradition.⁹

Queen Shin Sawbu (15th century CE, Burma) A devout Theravāda Buddhist queen who abdicated her throne to become a nun, taking the name Thiri Maha Dhamma Dewi. She used her wealth to endow numerous pagodas, sponsor religious texts, and support female scribes and reciters. Her patronage significantly advanced Buddhist education and textual preservation in medieval Burma.¹⁰

Prajñāpāramitā Bhikkhuni (2nd century CE, India)* Legendary nun associated with the Perfection of Wisdom literature, though her historical existence is debated. Several Prajñāpāramitā texts feature female wisdom figures who embody enlightened understanding, representing the feminine principle in Mahayana Buddhist philosophy.¹¹

Lady Wei Huacun (251-334 CE, China, Daoist-Buddhist synthesis) Daoist immortal and founder of the Shangqing school who also studied Buddhist texts. Her revelations, recorded in the Zhen'gao, include adaptations of Buddhist meditation practices integrated with Daoist internal alchemy.¹²

Empress Wu Zetian (624-705 CE, China) The only woman to rule China in her own right, she was also a significant Buddhist patron who commissioned translations of sutras and supported the creation of the Dayun Sutra, which justified female rule through Buddhist doctrine.¹³

Gelongma Palmo (11th century CE, Tibet) One of the first Tibetan women to receive full ordination, she established practices for female monastics and transmitted Vinaya traditions. Her lineage influenced the development of Tibetan nunneries for centuries.¹⁴

Ani Choying Drolma (20th-21st century CE, Nepal) Tibetan Buddhist nun renowned for preserving and popularizing traditional chants and spiritual songs through recordings and performances. Born Dolma Tsering, she uses music as a vehicle for dharma transmission and supports education and health projects for girls and women in Nepal through the Arya Tara School.¹⁵

Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo (20th-21st century CE, UK/Tibet) Born Diane Perry in England, she became one of the first Western women ordained as a Tibetan Buddhist nun. After completing a twelve-year meditation retreat in a Himalayan cave, she became a prominent advocate for full bhikkhuni ordination and established Dongyu Gatsal Ling, a nunnery in India dedicated to providing equal education for nuns.¹⁶

Karma Lekshe Tsomo (20th-21st century CE, US) American Buddhist scholar and co-founder of the Sakyadhita International Association of Buddhist Women. Her research, activism, and interfaith work have been instrumental in reclaiming women's roles in Buddhist scholarship and leadership.¹⁷

Rev. Zenju Earthlyn Manuel (21st century CE, US) Zen Buddhist priest, author, and teacher whose work explores the intersections of race, gender, and spirituality. Her teachings blend ancient dharma with contemporary insights on justice and identity.¹⁸

Jan Chozen Bays (20th-21st century CE, US) Zen master and physician who has written extensively on mindfulness and Buddhist psychology. She is one of the few women authorized to teach in the Zen tradition and has pioneered integrations of Buddhist practice with medical training.¹⁹

Christianity

Mary Magdalene (1st century CE, Palestine) Prominent follower of Jesus and the first witness to the resurrection in all four canonical Gospels. The Gospel of Luke identifies her as a woman "from whom seven demons had gone out," but she was later incorrectly conflated with the anonymous "sinful woman" and identified as a prostitute by Pope Gregory I in 591 CE. Apocryphal texts like the Gospel of Mary portray her as receiving special revelations and engaging in theological disputes with male apostles, suggesting her role as a teacher was later suppressed.²⁰

Thecla (2nd century CE, Asia Minor)* Central figure in the Acts of Paul and Thecla, an early Christian apocryphal narrative depicting a woman who baptizes, preaches, and defies social conventions to follow apostolic life. Though her historical existence is debated, her cult was widely venerated until the medieval period, when ecclesiastical authorities increasingly discouraged devotion to female saints who challenged gender norms.²¹

Junia (1st century CE, Rome) Named by Paul in Romans 16:7 as "prominent among the apostles" (episēmoi en tois apostolois). Medieval and later scribes changed her name to the masculine "Junias" in many manuscripts to avoid recognizing a female apostle. Modern textual criticism has restored the feminine form, revealing how women's apostolic authority was systematically obscured through scribal changes.²²

Perpetua (died 203 CE, Carthage) Christian martyr whose prison diary, the Passio Perpetuae, is one of the earliest surviving writings by a Christian woman. Her text combines visionary experiences with theological reflection and was widely read throughout early Christianity. The account, completed by an anonymous editor after her death, demonstrates early Christian women's capacity for theological insight and spiritual authority.²³

Macrina the Younger (circa 330-379 CE, Cappadocia) Sister of Gregory of Nyssa and Basil the Great, she was a philosopher and theologian whose spiritual insights shaped Cappadocian Christian thought. Her theological conversations are preserved in Gregory's Life of Macrina and On the Soul and Resurrection, where she appears as a sophisticated interpreter of Christian doctrine, particularly regarding the soul's relationship to the body.²⁴

Egeria (late 4th century CE, Western Europe/Holy Land) Christian pilgrim whose detailed travelogue, the Itinerarium Egeriae, describes her journey to Jerusalem and surrounding regions. Her work provides crucial evidence for early Christian liturgical practices and includes sophisticated biblical commentary, demonstrating lay women's engagement with scriptural interpretation during the patristic period.²⁵

Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179 CE, Germany) Benedictine abbess, composer, visionary, and theologian whose works include Scivias, Liber Vitae Meritorum, and Liber Divinorum Operum. Her visionary theology combined biblical commentary with natural philosophy and mystical experience, earning papal recognition during her lifetime. She corresponded with popes, emperors, and bishops while developing innovative theological concepts about divine creativity and cosmic harmony.²⁶

Heloise of Argenteuil (circa 1095-1164 CE, France) Scholar, abbess, and epistolary theologian known for her correspondence with Peter Abelard. Her letters demonstrate deep scriptural literacy and theological sophistication, particularly in her critiques of monastic life for women and her arguments about the relationship between intention and moral action. Her theological insights influenced medieval discussions of ethics and spiritual authority.²⁷

Julian of Norwich (circa 1343-1416 CE, England) Author of Revelations of Divine Love, the first known book written in English by a woman. Her sixteen "showings" or visions, received during severe illness in 1373, became the foundation for sophisticated theological reflection on divine love, sin, and salvation. Her innovative use of maternal imagery for God and her conviction that "all shall be well" challenged prevailing doctrines about damnation and divine wrath.²⁸

Margery Kempe (circa 1373-1438 CE, England) Mystic and pilgrim whose Book of Margery Kempe is the earliest known autobiography in English. Though dictated rather than written (she was illiterate), her account provides unprecedented insight into lay women's spiritual experiences, including mystical encounters, pilgrimage, and interactions with religious authorities who often questioned her claims to divine inspiration.²⁹

Catherine of Siena (1347-1380 CE, Italy) Mystic, theologian, and Doctor of the Church whose Dialogue presents sophisticated theological arguments received through mystical experience. Despite lacking formal education, her theological insights influenced papal policy and church reform movements.³⁰

Mechthild of Magdeburg (circa 1207-1282 CE, Germany) Beguine mystic whose The Flowing Light of the Godhead combines erotic mystical imagery with theological reflection. Her work influenced later mystics including Meister Eckhart and represents an alternative tradition of lay women's theological authority.³¹

Teresa of Ávila (1515-1582 CE, Spain) Carmelite reformer and Doctor of the Church whose mystical theology, particularly in The Interior Castle, systematized stages of spiritual development. Her combination of mystical experience and practical wisdom influenced Catholic spiritual direction for centuries.³²

Marguerite Porete (circa 1250-1310 CE, France) Beguine author of The Mirror of Simple Souls, a sophisticated theological treatise on the soul's union with God. She was burned as a heretic for refusing to retract her work, though it continued to circulate anonymously and influenced later mystical theology.³³

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (1648-1695 CE, Mexico) Nun, poet, and scholar whose theological and philosophical writings challenged male intellectual authority in colonial Mexico. Her letter Respuesta a Sor Filotea (Reply to Sister Philotea) defends women's right to theological learning by invoking biblical precedents of learned women, arguing that intellectual curiosity is a divine gift that should not be suppressed by social convention.³⁴

Dorothy Day (1897-1980 CE, US) Catholic social activist and founder of the Catholic Worker Movement whose journalism and autobiography integrated gospel teachings with social justice advocacy. Though not formally a theologian, her writings demonstrate sophisticated engagement with Catholic social teaching.³⁵

Thérèse of Lisieux (1873-1897 CE, France) Carmelite nun whose spiritual autobiography Story of a Soul introduced the "little way" of spiritual childhood as a path to sanctity. Her theological insights about divine mercy and spiritual simplicity influenced twentieth-century Catholic spirituality.³⁶

Mary Baker Eddy (1821-1910 CE, US) Founder of Christian Science and author of Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, which she claimed provided the spiritual interpretation of biblical texts. Despite controversy, her movement attracted thousands and represented women's religious leadership in nineteenth-century America.³⁷

Jarena Lee (1783-1864 CE, US) African Methodist Episcopal preacher and autobiographer whose Life and Religious Experience challenged both racial and gender restrictions on religious authority. Her preaching ministry demonstrated African American women's leadership in early evangelical movements.³⁸

Sojourner Truth (circa 1797-1883 CE, US) Abolitionist and women's rights activist whose speeches integrated biblical interpretation with social critique. Though illiterate, her "Ain't I a Woman?" speech used Christian theology to challenge both slavery and women's subordination.³⁹

Amanda Berry Smith (1837-1915 CE, US) African Methodist evangelist and missionary whose autobiography documents her preaching ministry across the United States, India, and Africa. Her theological insights about holiness and divine calling challenged both racial and gender limitations in evangelical Christianity.⁴⁰

Pandita Ramabai (1858-1922 CE, India) Sanskrit scholar and Christian convert whose biblical translations and social reform work challenged both Hindu and Christian patriarchy. Her integration of Christian theology with advocacy for Indian women's education influenced both religious and social reform movements.⁴¹

Evelyn Underhill (1875-1941 CE, England) Anglican mystical theologian whose scholarly works on mysticism, particularly Mysticism: A Study in Nature and Development of Spiritual Consciousness, established academic study of mystical experience. She was the first woman invited to give retreats to Anglican clergy.⁴²

Phillis Wheatley (circa 1753-1784 CE, Boston) Enslaved African woman whose Christian-themed poetry demonstrated remarkable biblical literacy and theological sophistication. Her poems, including "On Being Brought from Pagan Land," navigate the complex relationship between Christian faith and the experience of enslavement, often subtly criticizing white Christian hypocrisy while affirming her own spiritual equality.⁴³

Mary Daly (20th century CE, US) Radical feminist philosopher and theologian whose books—including Beyond God the Father—critiqued Christian patriarchy and proposed new theological language. Her work sparked decades of debate in academic and ecclesial settings.⁴⁴

Judaism

Miriam (Biblical era, 13th-12th century BCE)* Sister of Moses and Aaron, identified as a prophetess (nevi'ah) in Exodus 15:20 and associated with the Song of the Sea celebrating the Israelites' escape from Egypt. While early texts acknowledge her leadership role, later biblical editing and post-exilic traditions increasingly marginalized her authority in favor of her brothers. Talmudic tradition credits her with providing water to the Israelites during their wilderness wandering.⁴⁵

Deborah (Biblical era, circa 12th century BCE)* Prophetess and judge described in Judges 4-5 as leading Israel in both military and spiritual matters. The Song of Deborah (Judges 5) is considered one of the oldest texts in the Hebrew Bible and celebrates her victory over Canaanite forces. Her authority over male military leaders represents a striking example of female leadership that later biblical traditions rarely paralleled.⁴⁶

Huldah (7th century BCE, Judah)* Prophetess consulted by King Josiah's officials following the discovery of a law scroll in the Temple (2 Kings 22). She interpreted the scroll's divine warnings and confirmed its authenticity, playing a crucial role in Josiah's religious reforms. Her canonical authority as a prophetic interpreter makes her one of the few women in the Hebrew Bible explicitly recognized for theological insight.⁴⁷

Beruriah (2nd century CE, Roman Palestine) Wife of Rabbi Meir and one of the few women mentioned in Talmudic literature for her halakhic (Jewish legal) knowledge. Several anecdotes preserve her sharp reasoning on legal matters and her challenges to male scholarly assumptions. However, later medieval traditions developed tragic legends about her downfall that served to diminish her intellectual authority.⁴⁸

Glikl of Hameln (1646-1724 CE, Germany) Jewish businesswoman whose Yiddish autobiography provides rare insight into women's religious and ethical thinking in early modern Europe. While not formally educated in Jewish law, her memoirs demonstrate sophisticated engagement with Jewish texts and moral reasoning, and her work became a devotional resource for subsequent generations of Jewish women.⁴⁹

Asenath Barzani (circa 1590-1670 CE, Kurdistan) Daughter of a prominent rabbi who became head of a yeshiva (Jewish academy) and taught Talmud and Kabbalah to both male and female students. She composed Hebrew poetry and maintained scholarly correspondence across the Middle East. Her authority as a halakhic decisor represents one of the earliest documented cases of formal female Jewish religious leadership.⁵⁰

Sarah bas Tovim (18th century CE, Eastern Europe) Author of tkhines (Yiddish devotional prayers) for women, including the popular Shloyshes She'orim (Three Gates). Her prayers addressed distinctly feminine religious experiences and demonstrated sophisticated theological thinking about women's spiritual lives and relationship with the divine.⁵¹

Bella Chagall (1895-1944 CE, Belarus/France) Artist and writer whose memoir Burning Lights preserves Jewish women's religious experiences in Eastern Europe. Though primarily known as an artist, her writings demonstrate deep engagement with Jewish texts and traditions from a distinctly feminine perspective.⁵²

Regina Jonas (1902-1944 CE, Germany) The first woman ordained as a rabbi, she served Berlin's Jewish community from 1935 until her deportation to Theresienstadt in 1942. Her ordination thesis, "Can Women Serve as Rabbis?," used traditional Jewish legal reasoning to argue for women's religious leadership.⁵³

Nehama Leibowitz (1905-1997 CE, Israel) Biblical commentator whose weekly Torah study sheets (gilyonot) reached thousands of students worldwide. Her pedagogical approach emphasized close textual reading and comparative commentary, making traditional Jewish biblical interpretation accessible to modern readers including women.⁵⁴

Tikva Frymer-Kensky (1943-2006 CE, US) Biblical scholar whose In the Wake of the Goddesses demonstrated how feminine divine imagery was systematically suppressed in Hebrew Bible editing. Her work revealed the theological significance of recovering ancient Near Eastern goddess traditions for understanding biblical texts.⁵⁵

Amy-Jill Levine (20th-21st century CE, US) New Testament scholar whose work bridges Jewish and Christian biblical interpretation. Her scholarship on the historical Jesus and early Christianity challenges anti-Jewish readings while recovering Jewish contexts of Christian origins.⁵⁶

Francine Klagsbrun (20th-21st century CE, US) Author and Jewish feminist whose biographical work on biblical women and modern Jewish leaders demonstrates sophisticated engagement with traditional sources while advocating for contemporary women's religious leadership.⁵⁷

Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg (20th-21st century CE, Israel/US) Biblical commentator whose psychoanalytically informed interpretations of Torah narratives offer innovative readings of classical texts. Her work demonstrates how contemporary interpretive methods can deepen rather than threaten traditional Jewish learning.⁵⁸

Judith Plaskow (20th-21st century CE, United States) Author of Standing Again at Sinai, a foundational text in Jewish feminist theology that argues for reclaiming women's presence and interpretive authority in Jewish sacred memory. Her work challenges traditional exclusions while remaining committed to Jewish practice, demonstrating how feminist scholarship can transform rather than abandon religious tradition.⁵⁹

Islam

Khadija bint Khuwaylid (circa 555-619 CE, Mecca) First wife of the Prophet Muhammad and the first person to embrace Islam. A successful merchant who initially employed Muhammad, she provided crucial emotional and financial support during the earliest Quranic revelations. Though not a transmitter of Quranic text, her role in Islam's foundational period and her unwavering belief in Muhammad's prophetic mission make her essential to understanding early Islamic development.⁶⁰

Aisha bint Abi Bakr (circa 613-678 CE, Arabia) Wife of the Prophet Muhammad and one of the most important transmitters of hadith (prophetic sayings and actions). She is credited with narrating over 2,000 hadiths and was recognized for her sharp intellect and theological insights. Her involvement in early Islamic politics, including the Battle of the Camel, demonstrates her public authority, though later interpretations increasingly emphasized her domestic role.⁶¹

Umm Salama (Hind bint Abi Umayya) (circa 596-681 CE, Arabia) Wife of the Prophet Muhammad and trusted legal and theological authority who narrated hundreds of hadiths. She was particularly involved in developing Islamic law concerning women's rights in inheritance, divorce, and religious practice. Her legal opinions were cited by subsequent generations of Islamic jurists.⁶²

Hafsa bint Umar (circa 605-665 CE, Arabia) Wife of the Prophet Muhammad and custodian of the earliest written compilation of the Quran after the Prophet's death. Her personal copy, inherited from her father Umar ibn al-Khattab, formed the basis for Caliph Uthman's later standardized text. Her role as textual guardian is acknowledged but rarely emphasized in mainstream Islamic histories.⁶³

Rabi'a al-Adawiyya (circa 717-801 CE, Basra) Sufi mystic whose poetry and teachings centered on divine love and disinterested devotion to God. Though little survives in her own hand, her sayings and poems, preserved through oral transmission, profoundly influenced Islamic mystical literature. Her emphasis on love rather than fear in the relationship with God challenged legalistic approaches to Islamic practice.⁶⁴

Fatima al-Fihri (circa 800-880 CE, Fez) Founder of the University of al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, Morocco, recognized by some scholars as the oldest continuously operating educational institution in the world. She used her inheritance to fund Islamic learning, including Quranic memorization, hadith study, and legal education, demonstrating women's crucial role as patrons of Islamic scholarship.⁶⁵

Shuhda al-Katiba (1135-1178 CE, Baghdad) Known as "the Pride of Women" and "the Calligrapher," she was a prominent hadith transmitter and skilled calligrapher in Abbasid Baghdad. Male scholars sought out her chain of transmission (isnad) for its prestige and reliability. Her scholarly authority illustrates the respect accorded to female religious teachers in medieval Islamic culture.⁶⁶

Nana Asma'u (1793-1864 CE, Sokoto Caliphate, West Africa) Scholar, poet, and educator who translated Quranic and other religious texts into local languages and established one of the earliest Islamic women's education networks in West Africa. Daughter of Usman dan Fodio, founder of the Sokoto Caliphate, she composed works in Arabic, Fulfulde, and Hausa that preserved and transmitted Islamic knowledge across linguistic boundaries.⁶⁷

Aisha Abd al-Rahman (Bint al-Shati') (1913-1998 CE, Egypt) Literary critic and Quranic commentator whose tafsir (interpretation) work emphasized literary and linguistic analysis of the Quran. She was one of the first women to publish systematic Quranic commentary in the modern period.⁶⁸

Asma Barlas (20th-21st century CE, Pakistan/US) Author of "Believing Women" in Islam who developed comprehensive hermeneutical frameworks for reading the Quran as an anti-patriarchal text. Her scholarship demonstrates how careful attention to Quranic language and context can support egalitarian rather than hierarchical interpretations of gender relations.⁶⁹

Kecia Ali (21st century CE, US) Islamic studies scholar whose work on sexuality, ethics, and early Islamic history challenges traditional assumptions about gender in Islamic law. Her biography The Lives of Muhammad examines how later interpretations shaped understanding of the Prophet's relationships with women.⁷⁰

Asma Lamrabet (21st century CE, Morocco) Physician and Islamic feminist scholar whose writings on women in Islam emphasize the distinction between Quranic principles and cultural patriarchal overlays. Her work has influenced Islamic feminist movements across the francophone world.⁷¹

Azizah al-Hibri (20th-21st century CE, Lebanon/US) Legal scholar and founder of KARAMA (Arab Women's Organization) whose work applies Islamic jurisprudence to contemporary women's rights issues. Her scholarship demonstrates how traditional Islamic legal methods can support gender equality.⁷²

Laleh Bakhtiar (20th-21st century CE, US) Translator of the Quran whose 2007 English translation challenged conventional interpretations of controversial passages, particularly Quran 4:34. Her translation decisions sparked debate about women's authority in Quranic interpretation.⁷³

Ingrid Mattson (20th-21st century CE, Canada/US) Islamic studies scholar and former president of the Islamic Society of North America, the first woman to hold this position. Her scholarship on Islamic spirituality and law includes attention to women's roles in early Islamic communities.⁷⁴

Ziba Mir-Hosseini (20th-21st century CE, Iran/UK) Anthropologist and legal scholar whose ethnographic work on Islamic family law in Iran and Morocco reveals how women navigate and sometimes challenge traditional interpretations. Her work bridges academic scholarship and legal reform advocacy.⁷⁵

Riffat Hassan (20th-21st century CE, Pakistan/US) Theologian and women's rights activist whose Quranic hermeneutics challenge traditional interpretations that subordinate women. Her work on the creation narrative in Islamic texts offers alternative readings that support gender equality.⁷⁶

Fatima Mernissi (1940-2015 CE, Morocco) Sociologist and Islamic feminist whose scholarship revealed how women's voices were systematically excluded from Islamic historical narratives. Her work The Veil and the Male Elite demonstrated methods for recovering women's authority in early Islamic sources.⁷⁷

Amina Wadud (20th-21st century CE, United States/Malaysia) Islamic scholar and Quranic exegete whose book Qur'an and Woman offered a landmark feminist hermeneutic that distinguished between Quranic principles and patriarchal interpretations. Her leadership of a mixed-gender Friday prayer in 2005 sparked global debate about women's religious authority in Islam and challenged traditional restrictions on female religious leadership.⁷⁸

Hinduism

Lopamudra (Vedic period, circa 1500-1000 BCE, India)* Philosopher-poet credited with composing hymns in the Rig Veda, particularly RV 1.179, where she debates spiritual practice and marital relations with her husband, the sage Agastya. Her verses reflect sophisticated theological thought about the relationship between spiritual discipline and human desire, representing one of the earliest examples of female authorship in world scripture.⁷⁹

Gargi Vachaknavi (Upanishadic era, circa 800-600 BCE, India)* Renowned philosopher featured in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as challenging the sage Yajnavalkya in public debate about the nature of ultimate reality (Brahman). Her sophisticated questions about cosmology and metaphysics demonstrate women's participation in the highest levels of Vedantic philosophical discourse.⁸⁰

Sita (Epic era, circa 500 BCE-500 CE, India)* Central female figure of the Ramayana, traditionally revered for her devotion to her husband Rama but also noted for her trials, exile, and ultimate rejection of return to royal life. Modern reinterpretations emphasize her agency and resistance, while traditional readings focus on her exemplification of feminine virtue. Her story continues to generate theological and ethical debate about women's roles in Hindu society.⁸¹

Draupadi (Epic era, circa 500 BCE-500 CE, India)* Heroine of the Mahabharata whose public humiliation and defiant questioning of dharma (righteous duty) make her one of the most complex figures in Hindu literature. Her challenges to male authority and her demands for justice have made her a symbol of resistance in contemporary feminist readings of Hindu texts.⁸²

Akka Mahadevi (12th century CE, Karnataka, India) Mystic poet in the Lingayat tradition who renounced social conventions, including clothing, as a sign of total spiritual dedication. Her vachanas (devotional verses) to the deity Channamallikarjuna express passionate devotion while challenging social norms about women's behavior and spiritual autonomy.⁸³

Andal (9th century CE, Tamil Nadu, India) The only female among the twelve Alvar saints of Tamil Vaishnavism, celebrated for her passionate devotional hymns to Vishnu. Her Tiruppavai and Nachiyar Tirumozhi continue to be recited in South Indian temples, though their erotic spiritual imagery has often been interpreted through conventional frameworks that minimize her theological innovations.⁸⁴

Mirabai (circa 1498-1546 CE, Rajasthan, India) Royal-born bhakti poet who rejected social expectations and caste restrictions to pursue devotional union with Krishna. Her songs, widely sung across India, emphasize spiritual surrender and divine love while implicitly critiquing social hierarchies and women's subordination within marriage and family structures.⁸⁵

Lalla (Lalleshwari) (14th century CE, Kashmir) Kashmiri Shaivite mystic whose vakhs (short poems) combine yogic insight, non-dual philosophy, and personal spiritual struggle. Her verses influenced both Hindu and Muslim mystical traditions in Kashmir and represent one of the earliest female voices in Kashmiri literature.⁸⁶

Janabai (13th-14th century CE, Maharashtra) Devotee of the Varkari saint Namdev and composer of abhangs (devotional songs) that articulate the spiritual experiences of a servant woman. Her poetry demonstrates how domestic work could become a form of devotional practice and divine service.⁸⁷

Avvaiyar (multiple periods, Tamil Nadu)* Name shared by several Tamil women poets across different centuries. The later Avvaiyar (10th century CE) produced moral and devotional literature still taught to children, while earlier figures contributed to classical Tamil poetry. Their collective work shaped Tamil religious and ethical literature.⁸⁸

Bahinabai (1628-1700 CE, Maharashtra) Varkari poet whose abhangs describe her struggles as a woman seeking spiritual life while fulfilling domestic duties. Her verses provide insight into the tensions between devotional aspirations and social expectations for women in medieval India.⁸⁹

Tarigonda Venkamamba (1730-1817 CE, Andhra Pradesh) Devotional poet who composed thousands of verses in Telugu dedicated to Lord Venkateshwara. Her work demonstrates the continuation of women's devotional poetry traditions into the modern period and influenced later devotional music.⁹⁰

91. Gangasati (13th century CE, Gujarat) Saint-poet in the Pranami tradition whose compositions are still sung in rural Gujarat and Rajasthan. Her verses, transmitted orally for centuries, emphasize devotional surrender and ethical living within domestic life.⁹¹

92. Mahadevi Verma (1907-1987 CE, India) Hindi poet whose work draws heavily on mystical and devotional traditions while addressing modern women's experiences. Though primarily a secular writer, her poetry demonstrates continuity with classical Indian women's spiritual literature.⁹²

93. Arti Dhand (21st century CE, Canada/India) Scholar of the Mahabharata whose feminist readings challenge traditional interpretations of female characters. Her work reveals how attention to women's perspectives can transform understanding of classical Hindu texts.⁹³

94. Vasudha Narayanan (20th-21st century CE, India/US) Scholar of South Indian Hindu traditions whose work on women's roles in temple traditions and devotional practices demonstrates the continuing vitality of female religious authority in contemporary Hinduism.⁹⁴

95. Laurie Patton (20th-21st century CE, US) Sanskrit scholar and translator whose work on Vedic literature includes attention to female voices and feminine imagery in ancient Hindu texts. Her scholarship reveals the presence of women's perspectives in classical Sanskrit literature.⁹⁵

96. Mata Khivi (15th century CE, Punjab, Sikhism) Wife of Guru Angad, the second Sikh Guru, praised in the Guru Granth Sahib for establishing and maintaining the communal kitchen (langar) that embodies Sikh principles of equality and service. Her institutional role in early Sikhism demonstrates women's essential contributions to the tradition's development.⁹⁶

97. Bibi Nanaki (15th century CE, Punjab, Sikhism) Sister of Guru Nanak and his first follower, traditionally regarded as the first person to recognize his spiritual authority. Though she left no writings, her early support of Sikh teachings makes her one of the first transmitters of the tradition.⁹⁷

98. Mai Bhago (late 17th-early 18th century CE, Punjab, Sikhism) Sikh warrior and spiritual leader who rallied forty Sikh soldiers to defend Guru Gobind Singh. Her martial and spiritual leadership challenged conventional gender roles while demonstrating women's capacity for religious and military authority in Sikhism.⁹⁸

99. Sun Bu'er (1124-1182 CE, China, Daoism) One of the Seven Taoist Masters and founder of the female branch of the Quanzhen school of Daoism. Her writings on internal alchemy and meditation practices, preserved in the Daoist canon, provided guidance specifically adapted to women's spiritual cultivation and influenced generations of female Daoist practitioners.⁹⁹

100. Maria Sabina (1894-1985 CE, Oaxaca, Mexico, Mazatec) Mazatec curandera (healer) and poet who used psilocybin mushrooms in healing rituals while chanting prayers and songs considered divine transmissions. Though her practices were later appropriated and commercialized by outsiders, her role as a spiritual transmitter of indigenous wisdom remains deeply respected within Mazatec cosmology.¹⁰⁰

101. He Xiangu (8th century CE, China, Daoism) One of the Eight Immortals in Daoist tradition, she represents the feminine principle in Daoist spiritual achievement. Her legends preserve teachings about women's capacity for spiritual transformation and immortality through Daoist practices.¹⁰¹

102. Wei Huacun (252-334 CE, China, Daoism) Founder of the Shangqing (Highest Clarity) school of Daoism who received revelations that became foundational texts for later Daoist practice. Her spiritual authority was recognized by both male and female practitioners and influenced Daoist meditation techniques.¹⁰²

103. Mazu (Tianhou) (960-987 CE, China, Chinese folk religion) Deified woman whose cult became central to Chinese maritime religion. Her temples preserve oral traditions and ritual practices that demonstrate how local women could achieve divine status and continuing spiritual authority in Chinese religious culture.¹⁰³

104. Queen Mother of the West (Xi Wangmu) (Ancient China, Chinese mythology/Daoism)* Powerful goddess figure in Chinese religion whose myths preserve teachings about feminine divine authority and spiritual cultivation. Her stories, transmitted through both elite and popular texts, represent one of the most enduring feminine divine figures in Chinese culture.¹⁰⁴

105. Kateri Tekakwitha (1656-1680 CE, Mohawk Nation) Algonquin-Mohawk woman who converted to Christianity while maintaining indigenous spiritual practices. Canonized by the Catholic Church in 2012, her synthesis of Christian and indigenous traditions demonstrates alternative approaches to religious identity and authority.¹⁰⁵

106. Zitkala-Sa (Red Bird) (1876-1938 CE, Yankton Dakota) Writer and activist whose autobiographical works document the tension between indigenous spiritual traditions and Christian missionary education. Her writings preserve Dakota religious concepts while critiquing forced assimilation policies.¹⁰⁶

107. Roberta Blackgoat (1917-2002 CE, Diné/Navajo Nation) Traditional medicine woman and activist who preserved Diné religious teachings while resisting forced relocation from ancestral lands. Her speeches and interviews demonstrate how indigenous women maintain spiritual authority in contemporary contexts.¹⁰⁷

108. Winona LaDuke (20th-21st century CE, Anishinaabe) Environmental activist and writer whose work integrates indigenous spiritual teachings with contemporary environmental advocacy. Her books demonstrate how traditional indigenous knowledge systems offer alternatives to Western approaches to nature and spirituality.¹⁰⁸

109. Grandmother Agnes Baker Pilgrim (1924-2019 CE, Takelma) Tribal elder and spiritual leader who worked to preserve traditional Takelma spiritual practices and participated in international indigenous women's councils. Her teachings emphasized the spiritual responsibility of indigenous women as keepers of traditional knowledge.¹⁰⁹

110. Linda Hogan (20th-21st century CE, Chickasaw) Poet and novelist whose work draws on Chickasaw spiritual traditions while addressing contemporary environmental and social issues. Her writing demonstrates the continuing relevance of indigenous women's spiritual perspectives.¹¹⁰

111. Paula Gunn Allen (1939-2008 CE, Laguna Pueblo/Sioux) Scholar and poet whose The Sacred Hoop recovered traditions of Native American women's spiritual and political authority. Her work challenged both patriarchal and colonial interpretations of indigenous cultures and influenced Native American feminist scholarship.¹¹¹

112. Ibu Gedong Bagoes Oka (1921-2011 CE, Bali, Indonesia, Balinese Hinduism) High priestess (pedanda) and one of the first women to achieve the highest level of Balinese Hindu religious authority. Her ordination challenged traditional gender restrictions while maintaining orthodox religious practices.¹¹²

113. Raden Ajeng Kartini (1879-1904 CE, Java, Indonesia, Islam/Javanese synthesis) Javanese aristocrat and early feminist whose letters demonstrate sophisticated engagement with both Islamic and Javanese spiritual traditions. Her writings influenced Indonesian women's education and religious interpretation.¹¹³

114. Shamima Shaikh (1960-1998 CE, South Africa) Islamic feminist and journalist who challenged gender restrictions in South African mosques and Islamic education. Her activism demonstrated how contemporary Muslim women could use traditional sources to advocate for gender equality.¹¹⁴

115. Sachiko Murata (20th-21st century CE, Japan/US) Scholar of Islamic philosophy whose work on gender symbolism in Islamic thought reveals how traditional Islamic sources contain resources for understanding divine nature beyond conventional gender categories. Her scholarship bridges Islamic and East Asian spiritual traditions.¹¹⁵

116. Seyran Ateş (20th-21st century CE, Turkey/Germany) Lawyer and Islamic reformer who founded a liberal mosque in Berlin that challenges traditional gender segregation and women's exclusion from religious leadership. Her activism demonstrates contemporary efforts to transform Islamic practice through appeal to foundational sources.¹¹⁶

Notes

  1. On Mahapajapati, see Karma Lekshe Tsomo, ed., Buddhist Women Across Cultures (Albany: SUNY Press, 1999), 34-45.
  2. Therigatha verses translated in Susan Murcott, The First Buddhist Women (Berkeley: Parallax Press, 1991), 78-89.
  3. Vimala's verses in Therigatha 72-76; see analysis in Miranda Shaw, Passionate Enlightenment (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 67-78.
  4. Culavedalla Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya 44; see I.B. Horner, Women Under Primitive Buddhism (London: Routledge, 1930), 156-167.
  5. Dhammapada Commentary; see Hellmuth Hecker, Buddhist Women at the Time of the Buddha (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1982).
  6. On Lady Zhao, see Kenneth Ch'en, Buddhism in China (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), 234-245.
  7. Srimaladevi Simhanada Sutra; see Diana Paul, Women in Buddhism (Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press, 1979), 89-134.
  8. On Yeshe Tsogyal, see Judith Simmer-Brown, Dakini's Warm Breath (Boston: Shambhala, 2001), 234-267.
  9. Traditional Chan records; see Miriam Levering, "The Dragon Girl and the Abbess of Mo-shan," Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 5 (1982): 19-35.
  10. On Queen Shin Sawbu, see Than Tun, Essays on the History and Buddhism of Burma (Arran: Kiscadale Publications, 1988), 67-89.
  11. On Prajñāpāramitā literature and feminine wisdom, see Edward Conze, The Prajñāpāramitā Literature (The Hague: Mouton, 1960), 45-67.
  12. On Lady Wei Huacun, see Isabelle Robinet, Taoist Meditation (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993), 89-112.
  13. On Empress Wu Zetian's Buddhist patronage, see N. Harry Rothschild, Wu Zhao: China's Only Woman Emperor(New York: Pearson Longman, 2008), 134-156.
  14. On early Tibetan nuns, see Hanna Havnevik, Tibetan Buddhist Nuns (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1989), 67-89.
  15. Information from Ani Choying Drolma's official biography and interviews in Buddhist magazines.
  16. On Tenzin Palmo, see her autobiography Cave in the Snow (New York: Riverhead Books, 1998).
  17. On Karma Lekshe Tsomo, see her various publications and Sakyadhita International materials.
  18. Rev. Zenju Earthlyn Manuel, The Way of Tenderness: Awakening through Race, Sexuality, and Gender (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2015).
  19. On Jan Chozen Bays, see her published works including Mindful Eating (Boston: Shambhala, 2009).
  20. On Mary Magdalene, see Karen L. King, The Gospel of Mary of Magdala (Santa Rosa: Polebridge Press, 2003), 1-45.
  21. Acts of Paul and Thecla; see Sheila Briggs, "Galatians," in Searching the Scriptures, ed. Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza (New York: Crossroad, 1994), 218-236.
  22. On Junia, see Eldon Jay Epp, Junia: The First Woman Apostle (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005).
  23. Text and commentary in Herbert Musurillo, The Acts of the Christian Martyrs (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), 106-131.
  24. Gregory of Nyssa, Life of Macrina, trans. Virginia Woods Callahan, in Fathers of the Church 58 (Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 1967).
  25. Egeria's Itinerarium, trans. John Wilkinson in Egeria's Travels (London: SPCK, 1971).
  26. On Hildegard, see Barbara Newman, Sister of Wisdom (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987).
  27. Heloise's letters in The Letters of Abelard and Heloise, trans. Betty Radice (London: Penguin Classics, 1974).
  28. Julian of Norwich, Revelations of Divine Love, trans. Edmund Colledge and James Walsh (New York: Paulist Press, 1978).
  29. The Book of Margery Kempe, trans. B.A. Windeatt (London: Penguin Classics, 1985).
  30. On Catherine of Siena, see Suzanne Noffke, trans., Catherine of Siena: The Dialogue (New York: Paulist Press, 1980).
  31. On Mechthild of Magdeburg, see Frank Tobin, trans., Mechthild of Magdeburg: The Flowing Light of the Godhead(New York: Paulist Press, 1998).
  32. On Teresa of Ávila, see Kieran Kavanaugh and Otilio Rodriguez, trans., The Collected Works of St. Teresa of Avila(Washington: ICS Publications, 1976-1985).
  33. On Marguerite Porete, see Ellen Babinsky, trans., Marguerite Porete: The Mirror of Simple Souls (New York: Paulist Press, 1993).
  34. Sor Juana's works in A Sor Juana Anthology, trans. Alan Trueblood (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988).
  35. On Dorothy Day, see her The Long Loneliness (New York: Harper & Row, 1952).
  36. On Thérèse of Lisieux, see John Clarke, trans., Story of a Soul (Washington: ICS Publications, 1996).
  37. On Mary Baker Eddy, see Robert Peel, Mary Baker Eddy (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966-1977).
  38. On Jarena Lee, see Religious Experience and Journal of Mrs. Jarena Lee (Philadelphia: 1849; reprint, Nashville: AMEC Sunday School Union, 1991).
  39. Narrative of Sojourner Truth, ed. Margaret Washington (New York: Vintage Books, 1993).
  40. On Amanda Berry Smith, see her An Autobiography (Chicago: Meyer & Brother, 1893; reprint, New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).
  41. On Pandita Ramabai, see Uma Chakravarti, Rewriting History: The Life and Times of Pandita Ramabai (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1998).
  42. On Evelyn Underhill, see Grace Adolphsen Brame, Receptive Prayer: A Christian Approach to Meditation(Nashville: Upper Room Books, 1985).
  43. The Poems of Phillis Wheatley, ed. Julian D. Mason Jr. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989).
  44. Mary Daly, Beyond God the Father (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973).
  45. On Miriam, see Rita J. Burns, Has the Lord Indeed Spoken Only Through Moses? (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987).
  46. On Deborah, see Susan Ackerman, Warrior, Dancer, Seductress, Queen (New York: Doubleday, 1998), 78-134.
  47. On Huldah, see Alice Ogden Bellis, Helpmates, Harlots, and Heroes (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1994), 156-167.
  48. On Beruriah, see Judith Hauptman, Rereading the Rabbis (Boulder: Westview Press, 1998), 56-85.
  49. The Memoirs of Glückel of Hameln, trans. Marvin Lowenthal (New York: Schocken Books, 1977).
  50. On Asenath Barzani, see Renée Levine Melammed, "The Ultimate Challenge: Safed's Rabbi Joseph Karo and Venice's Beautiful Esther," in Gender and Judaism, ed. T.M. Rudavsky (New York: NYU Press, 1995), 191-210.
  51. On Sarah bas Tovim, see Chava Weissler, Voices of the Matriarchs (Boston: Beacon Press, 1998), 89-123.
  52. Bella Chagall, Burning Lights, trans. Norbert Guterman (New York: Schocken Books, 1946).
  53. On Regina Jonas, see Katharina von Kellenbach, "God Does Not Oppress Any Human Being," in Jewish Women in Historical Perspective, ed. Judith Baskin (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991), 271-289.
  54. On Nehama Leibowitz, see her Studies in the Weekly Sidra series and Yael Unterman, Nehama Leibowitz: Teacher and Bible Scholar (Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2009).
  55. Tikva Frymer-Kensky, In the Wake of the Goddesses (New York: Free Press, 1992).
  56. Amy-Jill Levine, The Misunderstood Jew (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2006).
  57. Francine Klagsbrun, Voices of Wisdom: Jewish Ideals and Ethics for Everyday Living (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
  58. Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg, Genesis: The Beginning of Desire (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1995).
  59. Judith Plaskow, Standing Again at Sinai (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990).
  60. On Khadija, see Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 41-63.
  61. On Aisha, see Denise Spellberg, Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994).
  62. On Umm Salama, see Asma Sayeed, Women and the Transmission of Religious Knowledge in Islam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 67-89.
  63. On Hafsa, see Sayeed, Women and the Transmission, 45-66.
  64. On Rabi'a, see Margaret Smith, Rābi'a the Mystic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1928).
  65. On Fatima al-Fihri, see various sources on the University of al-Qarawiyyin's founding.
  66. On Shuhda al-Katiba, see Sayeed, Women and the Transmission, 134-156.
  67. On Nana Asma'u, see Beverly B. Mack and Jean Boyd, One Woman's Jihad (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000).
  68. Aisha Abd al-Rahman, Tafsir al-Bayan li al-Qur'an al-Karim (Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1962-1969).
  69. Asma Barlas, "Believing Women" in Islam (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002).
  70. Kecia Ali, Sexual Ethics and Islam (Oxford: Oneworld, 2006) and The Lives of Muhammad (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014).
  71. Asma Lamrabet, Women and Men in the Qur'an (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).
  72. Azizah al-Hibri, various articles in Muslim Women and the Politics of Participation, ed. Mahnaz Afkhami and Erika Friedl (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1994).
  73. Laleh Bakhtiar, The Sublime Quran (Chicago: Kazi Publications, 2007).
  74. Ingrid Mattson, The Story of the Qur'an (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008).
  75. Ziba Mir-Hosseini, Islam and Gender (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999).
  76. Riffat Hassan, "The Issue of Women-Man Equality in the Islamic Tradition," in Women's and Men's Liberation, eds. Leonard Grob, Riffat Hassan, and Haim Gordon (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), 65-82.
  77. Fatima Mernissi, The Veil and the Male Elite (Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books, 1991).
  78. On Amina Wadud, see her Qur'an and Woman (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
  79. Rig Veda 1.179; see Wendy Doniger, The Rig Veda (London: Penguin Classics, 1981), 250-252.
  80. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.6 and 3.8; see Patrick Olivelle, trans., The Early Upanishads (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).
  81. On Sita, see Paula Richman, ed., Many Ramayanas (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).
  82. On Draupadi, see Arti Dhand, "Woman as Fire, Woman as Sage," Journal of the American Academy of Religion 73, no. 4 (2005): 831-876.
  83. On Akka Mahadevi, see A.K. Ramanujan, Speaking of Siva (London: Penguin Classics, 1973), 111-141.
  84. On Andal, see Vasudha Narayanan, The Vernacular Veda (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994).
  85. On Mirabai, see John Stratton Hawley and Mark Juergensmeyer, Songs of the Saints of India (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 120-142.
  86. On Lalla, see Jaishree Kak Odin, trans., Lalla: The Poems of Lal Ded (New Delhi: Penguin Books India, 2003).
  87. On Janabai, see Justin Abbott, trans., The Poet-Saints of Maharashtra (Poona: Scottish Mission Industries, 1926-1941).
  88. On Avvaiyar, see Kamil Zvelebil, Tamil Literature (Leiden: Brill, 1975).
  89. On Bahinabai, see Justin Abbott, Bahina Bai: A Translation of Her Autobiography and Verses (Poona: Scottish Mission Industries, 1929).
  90. On Tarigonda Venkamamba, see Velcheru Narayana Rao and David Shulman, Classical Telugu Poetry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).
  91. On Gangasati, see Winand Callewaert and Mukund Lath, The Hindi Songs of Namdev (Leuven: Departement Orientalistiek, 1989).
  92. On Mahadevi Verma, see her Collected Works and Kali Charan Ghosh, Modern Hindi Literature (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1966).
  93. Arti Dhand, "Woman as Fire, Woman as Sage," Journal of the American Academy of Religion 73, no. 4 (2005): 831-876.
  94. Vasudha Narayanan, "Brimming with Bhakti, Embodiments of Shakti," in Feminism and World Religions, ed. Arvind Sharma and Katherine K. Young (Albany: SUNY Press, 1999), 25-77.
  95. Laurie L. Patton, ed., Jewels of Authority (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
  96. Guru Granth Sahib, ang 967; see Doris R. Jakobsh, Relocating Gender in Sikh History (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003).
  97. On Bibi Nanaki, see traditional Sikh sources and Jakobsh, Relocating Gender.
  98. On Mai Bhago, see Sikh historical records and Harjot Oberoi, The Construction of Religious Boundaries (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
  99. On Sun Bu'er, see Thomas Cleary, trans., Immortal Sisters (Boston: Shambhala, 1989), 45-78.
  100. On Maria Sabina, see R. Gordon Wasson, Maria Sabina and Her Mazatec Mushroom Velada (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974).
  101. On He Xiangu, see Suzanne Cahill, Transcendence and Divine Passion (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
  102. On Wei Huacun, see Isabelle Robinet, Taoist Meditation (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993).
  103. On Mazu/Tianhou, see James L. Watson and Evelyn S. Rawski, eds., Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
  104. On Queen Mother of the West, see Suzanne Cahill, Transcendence and Divine Passion (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
  105. On Kateri Tekakwitha, see Allan Greer, Mohawk Saint: Catherine Tekakwitha and the Jesuits (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).
  106. On Zitkala-Sa, see her American Indian Stories (Washington: Hayworth Publishing House, 1921; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985).
  107. On Roberta Blackgoat, see various interviews and speeches documented in environmental and indigenous rights publications.
  108. Winona LaDuke, Recovering the Sacred (Boston: South End Press, 2005).
  109. On Grandmother Agnes Baker Pilgrim, see various oral history projects and indigenous women's council records.
  110. Linda Hogan, Dwellings: A Spiritual History of the Living World (New York: Norton, 1995).
  111. Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop (Boston: Beacon Press, 1986).
  112. On Ibu Gedong Bagoes Oka, see various Indonesian sources on Balinese Hindu women's religious authority.
  113. Raden Ajeng Kartini, Letters of a Javanese Princess, trans. Agnes Louise Symmers (New York: Norton, 1964).
  114. On Shamima Shaikh, see various South African Islamic feminist publications and archives.
  115. Sachiko Murata, The Tao of Islam (Albany: SUNY Press, 1992).
  116. On Seyran Ateş, see various media coverage and her own writings on liberal Islam.

Cross-References:

  • For definitions of technical terms, see Appendix C: Glossary
  • For primary sources and manuscript evidence, see Appendix B
  • For further reading on these figures, see Appendix D