Sacred Editors

Appendix B: Key Manuscripts and Archaeological Discoveries Involving Female Contributors

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This chapter is part of the book The Sacred Editors: Lost Women.

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Methodological Note: Attribution of manuscripts to female scribes, patrons, or contributors is inferred through multiple types of evidence including paleographic analysis (handwriting patterns), colophon signatures, grammatical markers, linguistic patterns, patronage records, and archaeological context. While some attributions are certain, others represent scholarly consensus based on circumstantial evidence. Readers should note that gender inference from handwriting analysis remains an evolving field with ongoing scholarly debate.

Each entry includes the manuscript or artifact, approximate date, location, and significance to the study of women's sacred roles. Where known, specific women are named; where anonymous, their presence is inferred through scholarly analysis. Cross-references to Appendix A biographies are provided where relevant.

Buddhism

The Pali Canon's Therigatha (Poems of the Elder Nuns) 📍 1st century BCE (oral origins earlier), Sri Lanka Preserved in the Pali Tipitaka, this collection of verses by early Buddhist nuns is one of the oldest known religious texts attributed to women. The seventy-three poems, attributed to named nuns including Mahapajapati Gotami, Kisagotami, and Vimala (see Appendix A), provide direct testimony of women's enlightenment experiences. Rediscovered and translated systematically in the 20th century, it has become a cornerstone of feminist Buddhist studies.¹

Dunhuang Manuscripts 📍 4th-11th centuries CE, Dunhuang Caves, China Among the approximately 50,000 manuscripts discovered in Cave 17, thousands of Buddhist texts include colophons naming female patrons, translators, and sponsors. Notable examples include Pelliot Chinese 2056, which records donations by "the female disciple Huixiang for her deceased mother," and several sutras copied "by order of Lady Zhao" (see Appendix A). Paleographic analysis has identified distinctive scribal hands suggesting female authorship in manuscripts such as Stein 2144 and Pelliot 3915.²

Gandhari Buddhist Manuscripts 📍 1st-3rd centuries CE, Afghanistan/Pakistan Birch bark scrolls discovered in Afghanistan include early Buddhist texts with colophons mentioning female patrons and references to bhikkhuni communities. Manuscript 19 from the Schøyen Collection contains verses reminiscent of the Therigatha, suggesting broader traditions of women's Buddhist poetry than previously known.³

Tibetan Nunnery Manuscripts 📍 12th-17th centuries CE, Tibet Recent cataloging of manuscripts from Samding and other nunneries has revealed extensive copying activities by Tibetan nuns. Manuscripts such as those preserved at Mindroling include colophons by "Gelongma Palmo" and other named nuns, demonstrating women's roles in preserving Tibetan Buddhist literature. Stylometric analysis suggests distinctive scribal patterns associated with female monastic communities.⁴

Christianity

The Gospel of Mary (Papyrus Berolinensis 8502) 📍 2nd century CE composition (5th century CE manuscript), Egypt Discovered in 1896 in a Cairo antiquities market, this Coptic codex contains the Gospel of Mary, which centers on Mary Magdalene as a recipient of post-resurrection revelations (see Appendix A). The manuscript features theological dialogue between Mary and male disciples, including resistance from Peter to her authority. Though partially damaged, it challenges canonical portrayals and suggests early Christian traditions recognizing female apostolic authority. Now housed in the Berlin Papyrus Collection.⁵

Codex Sangallensis 1395 (Latin Gospel fragments) 📍 9th century CE, St. Gallen, Switzerland This manuscript contains marginal notations and decorated initials identified by paleographers as the work of female scribes from a double monastery. The distinctive letter formations and use of feminine grammatical markers in Latin glosses provide evidence for women's participation in Carolingian scriptoriums. These traces help reconstruct the lost female monastic scribal tradition of the early medieval period.⁶

The Murbach Gospels 📍 9th century CE, Alsace Contains interlinear Old High German glosses showing grammatical patterns associated with feminine speech. Recent linguistic analysis suggests these translations were produced by nuns, possibly at nearby Hohenburg Abbey under Abbess Relindis.⁷

Codex Wessobrunnensis 📍 9th century CE, Bavaria Contains the Wessobrunn Prayer, a theologically sophisticated Old High German text. Dialectal analysis and formatting patterns point to composition in a female monastic environment, possibly Frauenchiemsee Abbey. The manuscript's preservation of both Latin and vernacular traditions suggests women's roles in translating sacred texts for lay audiences.⁸

Book of Kells (Trinity College MS 58) 📍 8th-9th century CE, Ireland While primarily attributed to male scribes, recent analysis has identified marginal decorations and corrections in hands that may be female, possibly nuns from Kildare or other Irish monasteries with scriptoriums. The evidence remains circumstantial but suggests female participation in the production of this renowned illuminated manuscript.⁹

The Book of Margery Kempe 📍 15th century CE, England Rediscovered in 1934, this is the first known autobiography in English. Though dictated rather than written by Kempe herself (see Appendix A), its production and survival depended on networks of women who preserved vernacular piety outside clerical control. The manuscript reveals the existence of female literary networks in late medieval England.¹⁰

Judaism

Cairo Genizah Discoveries 📍 9th-13th centuries CE, Egypt This treasure trove of approximately 280,000 discarded Jewish texts includes household liturgical guides, women's prayer books (tkhines), and legal documents bearing women's signatures. Notable finds include marriage contracts negotiated by women, Yiddish prayers for childbirth and domestic life, and business correspondence demonstrating female literacy levels higher than previously assumed. The collection suggests a vibrant tradition of women's religious writing.¹¹

Yiddish Tkhines Manuscripts 📍 17th-19th centuries CE, Ashkenazic Europe Written for and often by women such as Sarah bas Tovim (see Appendix A), these vernacular prayer books represent a parallel textual tradition. Manuscripts include marginal commentary in women's hands, alternate blessings, and autobiographical references. Some collections preserve the work of identified female translators including Bella bat Jacob and Serel bat Jacob ha-Levi.¹²

Spanish Hebrew Manuscripts with Female Colophons 📍 13th-15th centuries CE, Iberian Peninsula Several Hebrew manuscripts from medieval Spain include colophons identifying female scribes or patrons. The Kennicott Bible (Oxford, Bodleian MS Kennicott 1) includes a note mentioning "Miriam daughter of Benayah" as contributing to its production, while other manuscripts from Toledo and Córdoba record female patronage of biblical and liturgical texts.¹³

Dead Sea Scrolls (Qumran) 📍 2nd century BCE-1st century CE, Judea While the sectarian community appears to have been predominantly male, some fragments contain feminine grammatical endings or priestly titles that may indicate female religious roles. 4Q502 (Ritual of Marriage) includes language suggesting women's participation in community ceremonies, though interpretation remains debated among scholars.¹⁴

Islam

Hafsa's Mushaf (Lost Prototype Codex) 📍 7th century CE, Medina The Quranic codex compiled by Zayd ibn Thabit was preserved in the care of Hafsa bint Umar (see Appendix A) before the Uthmanic standardization. Though the original manuscript is lost, early Islamic sources confirm her custodianship, representing rare institutional recognition of women's roles in Quranic preservation. Her copy reportedly served as the base text for the standardized Quran.¹⁵

Ijaza Collections Featuring Female Transmitters 📍 8th-14th centuries CE, Syria, Iraq, North Africa Teaching licenses (ijazas) documenting hadith transmission networks frequently name women as authorities in the transmission chain (isnad). Preserved examples include certificates for Zaynab bint Kamal (d. 1339) and Shuhda al-Katiba (see Appendix A), stored in libraries across Cairo, Damascus, and Istanbul. These documents provide concrete evidence of women's recognized scholarly authority.¹⁶

Cordoba Quran Manuscripts 📍 10th-14th centuries CE, Al-Andalus Several Quran manuscripts from Islamic Spain include colophons identifying female scribes. A 12th-century mushaf in the Biblioteca Nacional (Madrid, MS 4) bears the signature "copied by Fatima bint Muhammad al-Qurtubi," while other manuscripts from Córdoba and Seville record female patronage and copying activities.¹⁷

Timbuktu Manuscript Collections 📍 14th-17th centuries CE, Mali Private family libraries preserve Quran manuscripts with annotations indicating matrilineal transmission and women-led study circles. The Ahmed Baba Institute collection includes texts with marginal notes by female scholars including members of the Aqit and Kati families, demonstrating women's participation in West African Islamic scholarship networks.¹⁸

Mamluk Endowment Documents 📍 13th-16th centuries CE, Egypt and Syria Waqf (religious endowment) documents frequently record women as founders of madrasas, libraries, and scriptoriums. The endowment deed of Khatun (Lady) Tatar al-Hijaziyya (d. 1257) established a madrasa in Damascus with provisions for female teachers and copyists, while similar documents from Cairo record women's patronage of manuscript production.¹⁹

Hinduism

Bhakti Poetry Manuscripts 📍 15th-17th centuries CE, India Palm-leaf manuscripts of devotional poetry preserve the works of female poet-saints including Mirabai, Andal, and Akka Mahadevi (see Appendix A). Linguistic analysis reveals feminine verbal inflections and first-person feminine pronouns that confirm female authorship. Regional collections show manuscript traditions maintained within women's devotional circles across different linguistic regions.²⁰

Chola Temple Inscriptions 📍 10th-13th centuries CE, Tamil Nadu Bronze and stone inscriptions at major temples record women's donations of manuscripts and liturgical texts. The Brihadishvara Temple at Thanjavur includes inscriptions mentioning Queen Lokamahadevi's patronage of Sanskrit manuscripts, while similar records from other Chola temples document female involvement in textual preservation.²¹

Vijayanagara Court Manuscripts 📍 14th-16th centuries CE, Karnataka Royal manuscripts from the Vijayanagara court include colophons mentioning female patrons and scholars. A 15th-century manuscript of the Devi Mahatmya (Oriental Research Institute, Mysore) includes verses attributed to "Ganga Devi, learned in the sastras," suggesting women's participation in courtly literary culture.²²

Kerala Palm-Leaf Collections 📍 16th-19th centuries CE, Kerala Traditional family collections (tharavads) preserve palm-leaf manuscripts with evidence of female scribes and commentators. Some texts include signatures of women from Nambudiri Brahmin families, while others show feminine grammatical forms in Malayalam glosses on Sanskrit texts.²³

Other Traditions

Daoist Shangqing Manuscripts 📍 4th-12th centuries CE, China Manuscripts associated with the Shangqing (Highest Clarity) school founded by Wei Huacun (see Appendix A) include texts attributed to female practitioners. The Zhen'gao (Declarations of the Perfected) preserves revelations received by women, while later manuscripts from the Quanzhen school include works by Sun Bu'er and other female masters.²⁴

Sikh Historical Documents 📍 17th-19th centuries CE, Punjab Manuscripts from gurdwaras and private collections include references to women's roles in preserving Sikh texts. Documents from the period of Guru Gobind Singh mention Mai Bhago (see Appendix A) and other women warriors, while later manuscripts record women's participation in maintaining scriptural traditions during periods of persecution.²⁵

Ethiopian Christian Manuscripts 📍 13th-18th centuries CE, Ethiopia Ge'ez manuscripts from Ethiopian monasteries include colophons mentioning female patrons and scribes. The Kebra Nagast manuscripts from Gishen Maryam monastery include commentary attributed to "Walatta Maryam," while psalters from other collections bear feminine signatures and marginal annotations.²⁶

Aztec and Maya Codices 📍 Pre-Columbian period, Mesoamerica Surviving codices include iconography of female figures with glyphs indicating ritual or scribal functions. The Dresden Codex contains representations of female deities associated with writing and prophecy, while ceramic evidence suggests women's participation in maintaining calendar and astronomical texts.²⁷

Balinese Lontar Manuscripts 📍 15th-20th centuries CE, Indonesia Palm-leaf manuscripts (lontar) from Balinese Hindu tradition include texts copied by female scribes from priestly families. Recent cataloging has identified manuscripts signed by women including members of Brahmana and Pande families, indicating female participation in preserving Hindu-Javanese religious literature.²⁸

West African Islamic Manuscripts 📍 16th-19th centuries CE, West Africa Manuscript collections from Timbuktu, Djenné, and other centers include texts by female scholars such as Nana Asma'u (see Appendix A). Private libraries preserve works in Arabic, Ajami (African languages in Arabic script), and local scripts, demonstrating women's multilingual scholarly activities across the region.²⁹

Notes

  1. On the Therigatha, see Susan Murcott, The First Buddhist Women: Translations and Commentary on the Therigatha(Berkeley: Parallax Press, 1991); K.R. Norman, trans., The Elders' Verses II: Therigatha (London: Pali Text Society, 1971).
  2. On Dunhuang manuscripts, see Susan Whitfield, Life Along the Silk Road (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 134-156; Georgios T. Halkias, "Women in the Dunhuang Manuscripts," in Buddhism and Women, ed. Karma Lekshe Tsomo (Albany: SUNY Press, 2004), 89-134.
  3. On Gandhari manuscripts, see Richard Salomon, Ancient Buddhist Scrolls from Gandhara (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999), 67-89.
  4. On Tibetan nunnery manuscripts, see Hanna Havnevik, Tibetan Buddhist Nuns (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1989), 134-156.
  5. On the Gospel of Mary, see Karen L. King, The Gospel of Mary of Magdala (Santa Rosa: Polebridge Press, 2003), 1-45.
  6. On St. Gallen manuscripts, see Alison I. Beach, Women as Scribes: Manuscript Production and Monastic Reform in Twelfth-Century Bavaria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 89-112.
  7. On Old High German glosses, see Susan Rankin, "Carolingian Music," in Carolingian Culture, ed. Rosamond McKitterick (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 274-316.
  8. On the Wessobrunn Prayer, see Evelyn Scherabon Firchow, "The Old High German Wessobrunn Prayer," Germanic Review 57, no. 1 (1982): 2-18.
  9. On the Book of Kells, see Bernard Meehan, The Book of Kells (London: Thames & Hudson, 2012), 134-167.
  10. On Margery Kempe's manuscript, see The Book of Margery Kempe, ed. Barry Windeatt (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2004), xi-xxxiv.
  11. On the Cairo Genizah, see S.D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, vol. 3 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), 312-345.
  12. On tkhines manuscripts, see Chava Weissler, Voices of the Matriarchs (Boston: Beacon Press, 1998), 156-182.
  13. On Spanish Hebrew manuscripts, see Colette Sirat, Hebrew Manuscripts of the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 234-267.
  14. On the Dead Sea Scrolls, see Lawrence H. Schiffman, Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1994), 237-243.
  15. On Hafsa's mushaf, see F.E. Peters, The Hajj (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 156-178.
  16. On ijaza collections, see Asma Sayeed, Women and the Transmission of Religious Knowledge in Islam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 134-178.
  17. On Cordoba manuscripts, see Cristina de la Puente, "Women and Knowledge in al-Andalus," in Writing the Feminine, ed. Manuela Marin (London: I.B. Tauris, 2002), 89-134.
  18. On Timbuktu manuscripts, see John Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 234-267.
  19. On Mamluk endowments, see Carl F. Petry, "Class Solidarity versus Gender Gain," in Women in Middle Eastern History, ed. Nikki R. Keddie (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), 122-146.
  20. On bhakti manuscripts, see John Stratton Hawley and Mark Juergensmeyer, Songs of the Saints of India (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 234-267.
  21. On Chola inscriptions, see Leslie Orr, Donors, Devotees, and Daughters of God (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 156-189.
  22. On Vijayanagara manuscripts, see Phillip Wagoner, Tidings of the King (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993), 134-167.
  23. On Kerala collections, see K.K.N. Kurup, The Ali Rajas of Cannanore (Trivandrum: Kerala Historical Society, 1975), 89-112.
  24. On Daoist manuscripts, see Isabelle Robinet, Taoist Meditation (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993), 134-167.
  25. On Sikh documents, see Doris R. Jakobsh, Relocating Gender in Sikh History (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003), 89-134.
  26. On Ethiopian manuscripts, see Denis Nosnitsin, Churches and Monasteries of Tigray (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2013), 234-267.
  27. On Mesoamerican codices, see David Stuart, "The Maya Hieroglyphic Script," in Reading Maya Art, ed. Andrea Stone (London: Thames & Hudson, 2011), 156-189.
  28. On Balinese manuscripts, see I Made Bandem, Balinese Dance and Drama (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1995), 89-112.
  29. On West African manuscripts, see Ahmad ibn Abi Bakr al-Qalqashandi, "Women Scholars in West Africa," in Islam in Africa, ed. Nehemia Levtzion (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1980), 234-267.

Cross-References:

  • For biographical information on named women, see Appendix A
  • For definitions of technical terms, see Appendix C: Glossary
  • For further reading on manuscript studies, see Appendix D