Appendix C: Glossary of Roles
This glossary defines religious and scholarly roles that women have held across traditions, both historically and in contemporary contexts. Terms are organized alphabetically and include cross-cultural comparisons where relevant. References to specific examples can be found in Appendix A.
Abbess A female head of a Christian monastic community, especially in medieval Europe. Some abbesses oversaw scriptoriums, taught theology, and exercised considerable political and liturgical authority equivalent to male bishops. Notable examples include Hildegard of Bingen and Heloise of Argenteuil (see Appendix A). Male equivalent: Abbot.
Bhikkhuni (Pali/Sanskrit) A fully ordained Buddhist nun who has taken the complete set of monastic vows (usually 311 precepts). Bhikkhuni lineages were established by the Buddha but disappeared in some Theravada traditions due to historical decline or legal restrictions. They remain vital in Mahayana contexts, and revival efforts are ongoing globally. Examples include Mahapajapati Gotami and contemporary figures like Tenzin Palmo (see Appendix A). Male equivalent: Bhikkhu.
Cantor (Hazzanit) (Hebrew) A woman who leads musical prayer in Jewish liturgical settings. While traditionally male in Orthodox settings, female cantors have been recognized since the late 20th century in Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist communities. The role involves extensive knowledge of Hebrew liturgy and musical traditions. Male equivalent: Hazzan.
Curandera (Spanish) A traditional healer in Latin American indigenous and mestizo communities who uses plants, prayers, and ritual knowledge to treat illness. Many curanderas maintain oral traditions of sacred songs and medicinal knowledge passed down through female lineages. Examples include Maria Sabina (see Appendix A). Male equivalent: Curandero.
Dharma Master (Fashi) (Chinese) A Buddhist teacher authorized to transmit dharma teachings and perform certain ceremonies. In medieval Chinese Buddhism, some women achieved this title, though documentation is limited. The role required extensive scriptural knowledge and recognized spiritual attainment.
Fakira/Murida (Arabic) A female Sufi initiate or seeker of the spiritual path (murida), or an advanced female spiritual guide (fakira). Some served as transmitters of poetry, mystical teaching, and oral commentary. Notable examples include Rabia al-Adawiyya (see Appendix A). Male equivalents: Fakir/Murid.
Griot/Griotte (West African) Traditional storytellers and oral historians in West African societies. Female griots (griottes) often specialize in women's stories, religious narratives, and ceremonial music. They serve as keepers of oral religious and historical traditions. Male equivalent: Griot.
Hafiza (Arabic, feminine of Hafiz) A woman who has memorized the entire Quran. While male huffaz are more commonly recognized, historical records include many women who were certified and who taught Quranic recitation to both genders. The title requires mastery of proper pronunciation (tajwid) and often includes knowledge of variant readings. Male equivalent: Hafiz.
Medicine Woman A female spiritual healer and keeper of sacred knowledge in various Native American traditions. Medicine women often maintain oral traditions of healing ceremonies, plant knowledge, and sacred songs. Their authority derives from spiritual calling and community recognition. Examples include Roberta Blackgoat (see Appendix A). Male equivalent: Medicine Man.
Midrashist A woman who interprets or creates midrash (rabbinic biblical commentary). While rarely recognized historically, modern feminist scholars have reclaimed this role through reinterpretation and expansion of Jewish sacred texts. The practice involves creative interpretation that reveals deeper meanings in biblical narratives.
Mystic A person who claims direct experience of the divine, often through visions, dreams, or inner union. Mystical insight has been one of the few pathways through which women across traditions were historically able to express theological authority. Examples span all traditions, from Julian of Norwich to Mirabai (see Appendix A).
Nabiya/Prophetess (Hebrew/Arabic) A woman recognized as a messenger of divine insight. Examples include Miriam and Deborah in Judaism, Huldah as a temple prophet, and various figures in early Christian and Islamic contexts. Female prophecy was often minimized or reinterpreted by later male authorities. Male equivalent: Nabi/Prophet.
Nun A woman who has taken monastic vows in Buddhism, Christianity, or Jainism. In many historical cases, nuns were not only contemplatives but also scribes, teachers, ritual leaders, and mystics. The specific vows and roles vary significantly across traditions and time periods.
Pandita (Sanskrit) A learned woman, especially in Buddhist or Hindu contexts. In traditional usage, the term indicates mastery of sacred texts and philosophical traditions. Some contemporary Buddhist women have reclaimed this title, while in Hindu contexts it historically applied to women with exceptional Sanskrit learning.
Poet-Saint (Bhakta/Alvar/Sufi poet) A woman whose devotional verses were considered sacred or semi-scriptural within a tradition. Figures like Andal, Mirabai, and Rabia al-Adawiyya fall into this category, often composing in regional or vernacular languages that made religious ideas accessible to broader communities (see Appendix A).
Qaria (Arabic) A female reciter of the Quran. Some were renowned for their voice and memorization skills, though rarely appointed to formal public roles. In some communities, women teach tajwid (proper recitation) to both boys and girls. The role requires extensive training in Quranic pronunciation and melodic traditions.
Rabbi (Hebrew) In contemporary Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist Judaism, women serve as rabbis with full ordination and authority to interpret Jewish law, lead worship, and perform life-cycle ceremonies. The first woman rabbi, Regina Jonas, was ordained in Germany in 1935 (see Appendix A). Orthodox Judaism continues to debate women's ordination.
Scribe (Soferet) A woman trained in the art of copying sacred texts by hand. While most historical scribes were male, manuscript analysis has identified numerous anonymous women scribes across Christian, Buddhist, and Jewish contexts. In contemporary Judaism, women trained as soferot write Torah scrolls, megillot, and other sacred documents (see Appendix A).
Shaman A spiritual practitioner who serves as intermediary between human and spirit worlds, often in indigenous traditions. Female shamans frequently specialize in healing, divination, and maintaining oral traditions of sacred knowledge. Their authority typically derives from spiritual calling and community recognition.
Sutra Patron/Donor A woman who commissioned or paid for the copying of Buddhist texts. In Mahayana Buddhism, such merit-making acts were considered sacred, and inscriptions sometimes name royal women or lay devotees. These patrons played crucial roles in preserving and disseminating Buddhist literature.
Tafsir Scholar A woman who interprets the Quran. While women rarely wrote formal tafsir (commentary) in classical Islam, some were cited as exegetical authorities in oral traditions, and contemporary feminist scholarship has produced important Quranic interpreters like Amina Wadud and Asma Barlas (see Appendix A).
Terton (Tibetan) A "treasure-revealer" in Tibetan Buddhism who discovers hidden texts (terma) through visionary experience. Some women have held this role, including historical figures like Sera Khandro, though their recognition has often been limited compared to male tertons.
Translator (Vācaka/Mufassira/Sutra Interpreter) A woman who renders sacred texts into other languages, often orally or with commentary. Female translators were particularly important in Buddhist traditions and indigenous communities where textual transmission relied heavily on oral performance and cultural adaptation.
Visionary A woman whose revelations, often received through dreams or ecstasies, were believed to contain sacred truth. While mystics might use visions privately, visionaries often recorded or dictated their experiences for others, such as Hildegard of Bingen or Julian of Norwich (see Appendix A). The role provided alternative authority for women excluded from formal religious education.
Wisdom Keeper In various indigenous traditions, an elder woman responsible for maintaining and transmitting sacred knowledge, ceremonies, and oral traditions. Wisdom Keepers often serve as final authorities on proper ritual practice and cultural protocols. Examples include Grandmother Agnes Baker Pilgrim (see Appendix A).
Cross-References:
- For specific examples of women in these roles, see Appendix A: Brief Biographies
- For manuscript evidence of women's scribal work, see Appendix B
- For further reading on women's religious roles, see Appendix D